Background
Methods
Study design and settings
Data collection methods and measures
Outcome variables
Predictor variables
Statistical analysis
Results
Descriptive characteristics of the study participants
Health-related quality of life
HRQoL scores | Median (IQR) | Mean (sd) |
---|---|---|
Summary Scores
| ||
Physical Health Summary Score | 56.3 (46.8–60.3) | 52.1 (11.0) |
Mental Health Summary Score | 50.8 (41.3–57.5) | 48.6 (11.7) |
Dimension scores
| ||
General Health perception | 65.0 (45.0–85.0) | 61.4 (26.5) |
Physical Functioning | 91.7 (66.7–100) | 81.8 (25.0) |
Role Functioning | 100 (50.0–100) | 79.3 (37.6) |
Social Functioning | 100 (80.0–100) | 83.6 (27.0) |
Cognitive Functioning | 85.0 (60.0–95.0) | 75.2 (24.9) |
Pain | 88.9 (55.6–100) | 76.7 (25.7) |
Mental Health | 72.0 (52.0–84.0) | 68.0 (22.0) |
Energy/Fatigue | 60.0 (45.0–80.0) | 60.6 (23.3) |
Health Distress | 80.0 (60.0–95.0) | 71.9 (27.4) |
Quality of Life | 75.0 (50.0–75.0) | 68.0 (23.2) |
n (%) | PHS: Median (IQR) |
p
| MHS: Median (IQR) |
p
| |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Age (years)
a
| 521 (98.7) | −0.065a
| 0.139 | 0.061a
| 0.165 |
Gender
| 521 (98.7) | – | 0.171 | – | 0.007 |
Male | 361 (69.3) | 56.6 (48.–60.5) | – | 51.9 (42.7–57.8) | – |
Female | 160 (30.7) | 55.3 (42.9–60.1) | – | 47.2 (36.8–56.4) | – |
Ethnicity
| 521 (98.7) | – | <0.001 | – | 0.025 |
Caucasian | 379 (72.7) | 55.5 (44.5–60.1) | – | 50.5 (39.3–57.0) | – |
Non-Caucasian | 142 (27.3) | 58.1 (53.0–61.0) | – | 51.6 (45.7–58.5) | – |
Education
| 517 (97.9) | – | <0.001 | – | <0.001 |
Higher education | 247 (47.6) | 58.5 (53.1–61.0) | – | 53.0 (45.7–58.9) | – |
Lower education | 272 (52.4) | 53.0 (41.5–59.1) | – | 48.3 (36.7–56.0) | – |
Employment
| 518 (98.1) | – | <0.001 | – | <0.001 |
Employed | 282 (54.4) | 58.9 (53.7–61.3) | – | 54.6 (46.3–60.0) | – |
Unemployed | 236 (45.6) | 50.2 (37.3–58.1) | – | 46.1 (35.5–54.2) | – |
Living condition | 521 (98.7) | – | 0.705 | – | 0.615 |
Lives with family | 323 (62.0) | 56.1 (48.1–60.2) | – | 53.1 (45.1–58.8) | – |
Lives alone | 198 (38.0) | 56.5 (46.2–60.5) | – | 49.2 (39.1–56.4) | – |
Sexual activity status
| 495 (93.8) | – | <0.001 | – | <0.001 |
Sexually active | 322 (65.1) | 57.5 (50.4–60.8) | – | 53.0 (44.1–58.6) | – |
Sexually not active | 173 (34.9) | 52.5 (37.8–59.2) | – | 47.5 (36.4–54.9) | – |
Current use of illicit drugs
| 494 (93.6) | – | 0.001 | – | <0.001 |
No | 415 (84.0) | 56.7 (49.0–60.6) | – | 51.9 (42.9–57.6) | – |
Yes | 79 (16.0) | 52.3 (38.3–59.0) | – | 44.4 (35.7–55.3) | – |
Use of alcoholic drinks
| 494 (93.6) | – | 0.017 | – | 0.007 |
No | 99 (20.0) | 53.6 (38.0–59.6) | – | 47.7 (34.6–55.5) | – |
Yes | 395 (80.0 | 56.8 (48.8–60.4) | – | 52.2 (42.3–57.6) | – |
HIV transmission mode
| 521 (98.7) | – | 0.001 | – | 0.002 |
MSM | 177 (34.0) | 58.1 (50.7–61.0) | – | 53.2 (45.3–58.9) | – |
Not MSM | 344 (66.0) | 55.4 (44.7–60.1) | – | 49.3 (39.1–56.9) | – |
Time since HIV diagnosed
a
| 521 (98.7) | −0.134a
| 0.002 | −0.013a
| 0.774 |
HIV symptoms
| 521 (98.7) | – | <0.001 | – | <0.001 |
Yes | 85 (16.3) | 44.7 (32.1–54.5) | – | 36.1 (28.6–48.4) | – |
No | 436 (83.7) | 57.5 (50.3–60.8) | – | 52.6 (44.8–58.5) | – |
Current ART status
| 521 (98.7) | – | 0.096 | – | 0.168 |
Yes | 436 (88.9) | 56.1 (46.6–60.3) | – | 50.6 (40.9–57.5) | – |
No | 58 (11.1) | 57.6 (52.6–60.7) | – | 53.8 (44.3–58.1) | – |
Recent CD4 level
| 521 (98.7) | – | 0.003 | – | <0.001 |
≤ 350cells/mm3
| 87 (16.7) | 51.7 (37.6–59.6) | – | 46.3 (36.0–53.9) | – |
> 350cells/mm3
| 434 (83.3) | 56.7 (48.9–60.4) | – | 51.8 (42.3–57.9) | – |
Recent viral load
| 521 (98.7) | – | 0.112 | – | 0.008 |
< 40 copies/ml | 413 (79.3) | 56.5 (48.8–60.4) | – | 51.2 (42.6–57.9) | – |
≥ 40 copies/ml | 108 (20.7) | 55.2 (42.9–60.1) | – | 47.9 (35.0–55.8) | – |
HIV complications
| 521 (98.7) | – | <0.001 | – | 0.006 |
No | 441 (84.6) | 57.0 (49.2–60.7) | – | 51.4 (42.4–57.7) | – |
Yes | 80 (15.4) | 49.2 (36.6–56.6) | – | 47.5 (35.0–55.1) | – |
Co-morbidities
| 521 (98.7) | – | <0.001 | – | <0.001 |
Yes | 271 (52.0) | 51.7 (38.5–58.8) | – | 47.1 (35.7–55.0) | – |
No | 250 (48.0) | 58.9 (54.2–61.1) | – | 54.5 (46.3–59.7) | – |
BMI (kg/m
2
)
a
| 520 (98.5) | −0.003a
| 0.948 | 0.022a
| 0.622 |
Risk of malnutrition
| 517 (97.3) | – | 0.001 | – | 0.004 |
Low risk | 457 (88.4) | 56.6 (49.1–60.4) | – | 51.5 (42.4–57.6) | – |
High risk | 60 (11.6) | 47.8 (35.9–58.8) | – | 45.3 (33.7–55.5) | – |
Overall Social Support
a
| 509 (96.4) | 0.299a
| <0.001 | 0.386a
| <0.001 |
Disclosure issues
a
| 490 (92.8) | 0.062a
| 0.182 | 0.026a
| 0.561 |
Good PHS | Good MHS | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Variables | OR (95 % CI) |
p
| OR (95 % CI) |
P
|
Age (Years) | 1.00 (0.97–1.03) | 0.919 | 1.05 (1.02–1.08) | 0.001 |
Gender (Male) | 2.47 (1.22–4.98) | 0.012 | 1.76 (0.96–3.24) | 0.068 |
Ethnicity (Non-Caucasian) | 3.55 (1.63–7.73) | 0.001 | 2.11 (1.12–3.99) | 0.021 |
Education (Higher education) | 2.33 (1.32–4.12) | 0.004 | 1.10 (0.68–1.80) | 0.697 |
Employment (Employed) | 4.02 (2.27–7.14) | <0.001 | 2.12 (1.28–3.50) | 0.003 |
Living condition (Lives with family) | 0.81 (0.45–1.47) | 0.491 | 0.70 (0.42–1.16) | 0.166 |
Sexually active (Yes) | 1.22 (0.70–2.11) | 0.478 | 1.04 (0.63–1.71) | 0.881 |
Current use of illicit drugs (No) | 1.55 (0.76–3.16) | 0.224 | 2.53 (1.31–4.89) | 0.006 |
Current use of alcoholic drinks (No) | 2.00 (1.01–3.98) | 0.047 | 0.69 (0.39–1.25) | 0.223 |
MSM (Yes) | 0.95 (0.47–1.92) | 0.890 | 0.69 (0.38–1.26) | 0.227 |
Time since HIV diagnosed (Years) | 1.01 (0.97–1.06) | 0.579 | 1.03 (0.98–1.07) | 0.258 |
Symptoms of HIV (Yes) | 3.49 (1.77–6.89) | <0.001 | 3.56 (1.79–7.10) | <0.001 |
On ART (Yes) | 3.11 (0.96–10.11) | 0.059 | 2.47 (0.95–6.42) | 0.063 |
CD4 count (>350 cells/mm3) | 1.22 (0.63–2.39) | 0.558 | 1.54 (0.83–2.86) | 0.170 |
Viral load (<40 copies/ml) | 1.65 (0.72–3.79) | 0.240 | 1.73 (0.81–3.72) | 0.158 |
HIV-associated complications (No) | 1.97 (1.01–3.82) | 0.046 | 1.13 (0.60–2.12) | 0.708 |
Co-morbid conditions (No) | 2.29 (1.29–4.07) | 0.004 | 2.46 (1.50–4.02) | <0.001 |
BMI (Kg/m2) | 0.97 (0.90–1.03) | 0.283 | 0.92 (0.86–0.97) | 0.004 |
Malnutrition risk (Low) | 1.73 (0.75–3.97) | 0.198 | 2.25 (1.02–4.97) | 0.045 |
Social support (Total score 0–100) | 1.03 (1.02–1.04) | <0.001 | 1.03 (1.02–1.04) | <0.001 |
Disclosure worries (Total score 0–100) | 1.00 (0.99–1.01) | 0.608 | 1.01 (1.00–1.02) | 0.105 |
Good PHS (Total PHS score > 50) | Good MHS (Total MHS score > 50) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Univariate analysis | Multivariable analysis | Univariate analysis | Multivariable analysis | |||||
Variables | OR (95 % CI) |
p
| OR (95 % CI) |
p
| OR (95 % CI) |
p
| OR (95 % CI) |
p
|
Age (years)
| 0.984 (0.96–1.01) | 0.13 | 1.00 (0.97–1.03) | 0.919 | 1.024 (1.00–1.05) | 0.017 | 1.05 (1.02–1.08) | 0.001 |
Gender
| ||||||||
Male
| 1.546 (1.04–2.30) | 0.031 | 2.47 (1.22–4.98) | 0.012 | 1.611 (1.11–2.34) | 0.013 | 1.76 (0.96–3.24) | 0.068 |
Female (Ref) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
Ethnicity
| ||||||||
Non-Caucasian | 2.53 (1.57–4.09) | <0.001 | 3.55 (1.63–7.73) | 0.001 | 1.23 (0.84–1.81) | 0.295 | 2.11 (1.12–3.99) | 0.021 |
Caucasian (Ref) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
Education
| ||||||||
Higher education | 3.581 (2.37–5.40) | <0.001 | 2.33 (1.32–4.12) | 0.004 | 1.75 (1.23–2.48) | 0.002 | 1.10 (0.68–1.80) | 0.697 |
Lower education (Ref) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
Employment
| ||||||||
Employed | 5.524 (3.65–8.43) |
<0.001
| 4.02 (2.27–7.14) |
<0.001
| 3.327 (2.32–4.78) |
<0.001
| 2.12 (1.28–3.50) |
0.003
|
Unemployed (Ref) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
Living condition
| ||||||||
Lives with family | 1.037 (0.71–1.52) | 0.851 | 0.81 (0.45–1.47) | 0.491 | 1.038 (0.73–1.48) | 0.838 | 0.70 (0.42–1.16) | 0.166 |
Lives alone (Ref) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
Sexual activity status
| ||||||||
Sexually active | 2.626 (1.77–3.91) | <0.001 | 1.22 (0.70–2.11) | 0.478 | 1.768 (1.22–2.57) | 0.003 | 1.04 (0.63–1.71) | 0.881 |
Sexually not active (Ref) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
Current use of illicit drugs
| ||||||||
No | 2.237 (1.37–3.66) | 0.001 | 1.55 (0.76–3.16) | 0.224 | 2.229 (1.36–3.66) | 0.002 | 2.53 (1.31–4.89) | 0.006 |
Yes (Ref) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
Use of alcoholic drinks | ||||||||
No | 0.742 (0.47–1.18) | 0.209 | 2.00 (1.01–3.98) | 0.047 | 0.496 (1.36–3.66) | 0.002 | 0.69 (0.39–1.25) | 0.223 |
Yes (Ref) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
HIV transmission mode
| ||||||||
MSM | 1.96 (1.29–2.99) | 0.002 | 0.95 (0.47–1.92) | 0.89 | 1.678 (1.16–2.43) | 0.006 | 0.69 (0.38–1.26) | 0.227 |
Not MSM (Ref) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
Time since HIV diagnosed
| 0.956 (0.93–0.99) | 0.004 | 1.01 (0.97–1.06) | 0.579 | 1 (0.97–1.03) | 0.987 | 1.03 (0.98–1.07) | 0.258 |
HIV symptoms
| ||||||||
No | 5.221 (3.20–8.53) |
<0.001
| 3.49 (1.77–6.89) |
<0.001
| 5.294 (3.042–9.21) |
<0.001
| 3.56 (1.79–7.10) |
<0.001
|
Yes (Ref) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
Current ART status
| ||||||||
No | 1.578 (.83–3.02) | 0.167 | 3.11 (0.96–10.11) | 0.059 | 1.316 (0.76–2.29) | 0.33 | 2.47 (0.95–6.42) | 0.063 |
Yes (Ref) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
Recent CD4 level
| ||||||||
> 350cells/mm3
| 2.029 (1.26–3.26) | 0.003 | 1.22 (0.63–2.39) | 0.558 | 2.166 (1.35–3.48) | 0.001 | 1.54 (0.83–2.86) | 0.17 |
≤ 350cells/mm3 (Ref) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
Recent viral load
| ||||||||
< 40 copies/ml | 1.471 (0.94–2.30) | 0.089 | 1.65 (0.72–3.79) | 0.24 | 1.511 (0.99–2.31) | 0.058 | 1.73 (0.81–3.72) | 0.158 |
≥ 40 copies/ml (Ref) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
HIV complications
| ||||||||
No | 3.097 (1.90–5.04) | <0.001 | 1.97 (1.01–3.82) | 0.046 | 1.615 (1.00–2.61) | 0.051 | 1.13 (0.60–2.12) | 0.708 |
Yes (Ref) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
Co-morbidities
| ||||||||
No | 3.873 (2.57–5.85) |
<0.001
| 2.29 (1.29–4.07) |
0.004
| 2.529 (1.78–3.60) |
<0.001
| 2.46 (1.50–4.02) |
<0.001
|
Yes (Ref) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
BMI (kg/m
2
)
| 1.014 (0.97–1.06) | 0.533 | 0.97 (0.90–1.03) | 0.283 | 0.982 (0.95–1.02) | 0.369 | 0.92 (0.86–0.97) | 0.004 |
Risk of malnutrition
| ||||||||
Low risk | 3.069 (1.78–5.31) | <0.001 | 1.73 (0.75–3.97) | 0.198 | 2.48 (1.41–4.38) | 0.002 | 2.25 (1.02–4.97) | 0.045 |
High risk (Ref) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
Overall Social Support
| 1.022 (.02–1.03) |
<0.001
| 1.03 (1.02–1.04) |
<0.001
| 1.025 (1.02–1.03) |
<0.001
| 1.03 (1.02–1.04) |
<0.001
|
Disclosure issues
| 0.996 (0.99–1.00) | 0.321 | 1.00 (0.99–1.01) | 0.608 | 1.002 (1.00–1.01) | 0.577 | 1.01 (1.00–1.02) | 0.105 |