Background
Bladder cancer (BCa) is one of the most common urological malignancies across the world, especially in elderly men [
1]. It is reported that there are 386,000 new cases and almost 150,000 deaths worldwide annually. BCa is classified as non-muscle invasive and muscle-invasive cancers [
2]. Approximately, 70% of patients display indications for non-muscle-invasive BCa (NMIBC) during the initial diagnosis with mutable danger of recurrence and development to invasive diseases, hence needing long-term surveillance [
3]. The recommended maintenance schedules from transurethral resection to radiation therapy and systemic chemotherapy at present are effective only in a subset of patients, and the 5-year overall survival rate remains at a low level [
4].
Although numerous genes associated with BCa tumorigenesis and tumor metastasis were uncovered, the underlying molecular mechanism has not been thoroughly elucidated. Lacking of sophisticated understanding of the pathogenetic mechanism is one of the most crucial reasons for dismal outcomes in cancer patients [
5]. Therefore, it is essential to explore new detailed mechanisms and molecular pathways activated in BCa for developing novel treatment options for anticancer therapy in BCa.
Transmembrane protein 40 (TMEM40) is a multi-pass membrane protein consisting of 233 amino acids and exists two isoforms [
6‐
9]. It is localized at chromosome 3p25.2 and is believed to play a role in collagen induced arthritis (CIA) [
10,
11]. A study reported that expression of TMEM40 were significantly higher in patients carrying Granulin (GRN) mutations compared with asymptomatic carriers and other frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD) [
12]. Importantly, our previous finding suggested that the expression of TMEM40 in BCa was significantly related to its pathologic grade, clinical stage, histological grade and pT status [
13]. However, the specific function of TMEM40 in bladder carcinogenesis, especially its molecular mechanisms by which TMEM40 exhibits its functions and modulates the malignant behaviors of BCa cells, has not been fully understood.
In this study, we initially explored TMEM40 mRNA and protein expression and the correlation with malignant behavior, confirmed its potential role in proliferation, migration, and invasion of bladder cancer cells in vitro and tumorigenicity in vivo. Furthermore, we investigated the biologic functions of TMEM40 and underlying molecular mechanisms of BCa occurrence and progression in BCa cells.
Methods
Patients and clinical samples collection
BCa tissues and adjacent normal tissues were obtained from 12 patients, who underwent bladder surgical resection without preoperative systemic therapy in Nanfang Hospital of Southern Medical University between October 2014 and September 2016. After surgical removal, the tissues were immediately frozen using liquid nitrogen. All the patients signed informed consent and the study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Nanfang Hospital of Southern Medical University.
Cell lines and cell culture
BCa EJ, J82, BIU-87, UMUC3, SW780, 5637, T24 and normal urothelial cell line SV-HUC-1 cells used in this study were obtained from laboratory preservation. The 5637, EJ, SW780, J82 and BIU87 cells were cultured in RPMI-1640 Medium (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA, USA), the UMUC3, T24 cells were cultured in Dulbecco’s Modified Eagle Medium (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA, USA), SV-HUC-1 cells were cultured in F12K (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA, USA). All cells were plus 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS) and 1% ampicillin (100 units/mL) and streptomycin (100 units/mL) and then placed at 37 °C with a humidified atmosphere of 95% air and 5% CO2 in incubator.
siRNA or shRNA and plasmid DNA transfection
The specific small interfering RNA of TMEM40 and a scrambled negative control were purchased from RiboBio (Guangzhou, China). The overexpression vector pEZ-M98 and a scrambled negative control empty vector were also purchased from GeneCopoeia (Guangzhou, China). The shRNA vector and a scrambled negative control vector were obtained from Genechem (Shanghai, China). The sequence of siRNA was 5′-GGAUGAGCUUCAACUCUAUTT-3′; NC was 5′-UUCUCCGAACGUGUCACGUTT-3′; shRNA was 5′-GUGGACGCCUCUCAGUUAA-3′; NC was 5′-TTCTCCGAACGTGTCACGT-3′;
After cells were cultured 24 h, the cells were transiently transfected with corresponding siRNA or plasmid DNA using Lipofectamine 2000 reagents (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA, USA) according to the manufacturer’s instructions. After 48 h, cells transfected with siRNA or shRNA and plasmid were harvested for qRT-PCR or western blot detection.
Real-time reverse transcription PCR (qRT-PCR)
All total RNA was extracted from BCa tissues or cells using the Trizol reagent (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA, USA). Qualified total RNA was then reverse transcribed to complementary DNA using a PrimeScript RT reagent Kit (Takara, Dalian, China). The quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) was performed using SYBR Green PCR kit (Takara, Dalian, China) following the manufacturer’s instructions. GAPDH was measured as an internal control. The primer sequences were listed as follows: TMEM40 primers: (forward, 5′-GCGGTAGGGGTGTACGGT-3′; reverse, 5′-CCGGACACGCTGAACT TGT-3′); P53 primers: (forward, 5-AAGATCCGCGGGCGTAA-3; reverse, 5′-CATCCTTTAACTCTAAG GCCTCATTC-3′); c-myc primers: (forward, 5′-CTTCTCTCCGTCCTCGGATTCT-3′; reverse, 5′-GAA GGTGATCCAGACTCTGACCTT-3′); JNK2 primers: (forward, 5′-TACGTGGTGACACGGTACTACC-3′; reverse, 5′-CACAACCTTTCACCAGCTCTCC-3′); RB primers: (forward, 5′-ATCAAGGGTCATTATGG GTTAGGC-3′; reverse, 5′-TAGGTGTAGGGGAGGGGAGAAGC-3′); GAPDH primers: (forward, 5′-CG CTCTCTGCTCCTCCTGTTC-3′; reverse, 5′-ATCCGTTGACTCCGACCTTCAC-3′). The reactions were carried out on an ABI PRISM 7500 Fluorescent Quantitative PCR System (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA, USA) in triplicate. The average value in each triplicate was used to calculate the relative amount of TMEM40 using 2−ΔΔCt methods.
Western blot analysis and antibodies
The BCa cells and tumor tissue samples lysates were extracted with RIPA cell lysis buffer, and the protein concentration in the lysates was quantified using an enhanced bicinchoninic acid protein assay kit (Thermo Fisher Scientific, MA, USA) with bovine serum albumin as a standard. The total protein extract will be used for western blot analysis. Equal amounts of total protein of tissues or cells were subjected to 10% SDS-PAGE and transferred to a PVDF membrane followed by immunoblotting using the following primary polyclonal antibodies: mouse anti-TMEM40 (Santa Cruz, CA, USA), rabbit anti-p53 (Proteintech Group, INC, USA), rabbit anti-p21 (Proteintech Group, INC, USA), mouse anti-CCND1 (Proteintech Group, INC, USA), rabbit anti-Caspase-3 (Cell Signaling Technology, MA, USA), rabbit anti-Caspase-9 (Proteintech Group, INC, USA), rabbit anti-PARP (Proteintech Group, INC, USA), rabbit anti-c-MYC (Proteintech Group, INC, USA) and GAPDH (Cell Signaling Technology, MA, USA). Specific proteins were detected with enhanced chemiluminescence (ECL, Millipore, USA). Band density was measured (ImageJ software) and normalized to GAPDH.
Cell migration and invasion assay
A scratch wound healing assay was adapted to evaluate the ability of cell migration. Cells at a density of 80–90% confluence in 12-well plates were scratched manually with a sterile 200 µL plastic pipette tip, cultured for 24 h and photographed under a light microscope. The width of the wound area was quantitated, using the Image J. For the invasion assay, a transwell chamber was placed into a 24-well plate and was coated with 30 μL Matrigel and incubated for 60 min at 37 °C. Cells were cultured in normal medium and transfected with corresponding siRNA or plasmid DNA. 24 h after transfection, 5 × 104 cells were first starved in 200 μL serum free medium and then placed in the uncoated dishes. The lower chamber was filled with 750 μL of complete medium. The cells were incubated for 48 h at 37 °C in a 5% CO2 incubator, and then the cells that had migrated to the bottom surface of the filter membrane were stained with 0.1% crystal violet staining solution and photographed in five preset fields per insert. The results represented the average of three independent experiments.
Cell Counting Kit-8 assay
Cell proliferation was determined using Cell Counting Kit-8 (Beyotime Inst Biotech, China). In short, 5 × 103 cells/well were seeded in a 96-well flat-bottomed plate for 24 h, then transfected with corresponding siRNA or plasmid DNA cultured in normal medium. At 0, 24, 48 and 72 h after transfection, 10 μL of CCK-8 (5 mg/mL) was added to each well and the cells were cultured for 2 h then determined the absorbance at a wavelength of 450 nm using a microplate reader (Tecan, Infinite®M200, Austria). Experiments were repeated at least three times.
5-Ethynyl-2′-deoxyuridine (EdU) incorporation assay
Cell proliferation was also determined by 5-Ethynyl-2′-deoxyuridine incorporation assay using an EdU Apollo DNA in vitro kit (RiboBio, Guangzhou, China) following the manufacturer’s instructions. Briefly, 5637 and EJ cells were plated in confocol dish plates at a density of 4 × 103–1×105 cells and incubated with 100 μL of 50 μM EdU per dish for 2 h at 37 °C, at 48 h after transfected with corresponding siRNA or plasmid DNA, respectively. Then, the cells were fixed for 30 min at room temperature using 100 μL of fixing buffer (4% polyformaldehyde containing PBS). Subsequently, the cells were incubated with 100 μL of 2 mg/mL glycine for 5 min followed by washing with 100 μL of PBS (Phosphate Buffered Saline). After permeabilization with 100 μL of 0.5% Triton X-100 for 10 min, the cells were reacted with 100 μL of 1× Apollo solution for 30 min at room temperature in the dark. After that, cells were incubated with 100 μL of 1× Hoechst 33342 solution for 30 min at room temperature in the dark followed by washing with 100 μL of PBS. The cells were then visualized under a fluorescence microscopy. Experiments were repeated at least three times.
Cell cycle assay
The BCa cells were plated in 6-well plates at a density of 1 × 106 cells every well cultured for 24 h, then transfected with siRNA and plasmid DNA. After 48 h, cells were then treated with trypsin, fixed in 70% frozen ethanol, followed by overnight incubation and washed with PBS, nucleus was stained by 450 μL Propidium Iodide (PI) and 50 μL RNAase. The percentages of 5637/EJ cells in the G0/G1, S, and G2/M phases were examined by Becton–Dickinson FACSVerse™ flow cytometry (San Jose, CA, USA). All experiments were performed three times.
Cell apoptosis assay
Briefly, BCa cells were plated in 6-well plates at a density of 1–5×105 cells every well cultured for 24 h. After transfection for 48 h, cells were harvested by trypsinization and washed with PBS and suspended in 500 μL Annexin V binding buffer. The percentage of cells actively undergoing apoptosis was determined by double staining with 5 μL AnnexinV-APC and 5 μL 7-AAD apoptosis detection kits (KeyGEN Biotech, Nanjing, China), and analyzed using a Becton–Dickinson FACSVerse™ flow cytometry (San Jose, CA, USA). At least 10,000 cells were obtained from each sample.
Tumorigenicity assay in nude mice
Five-week-old female/male BALB/c-nu athymic nude mice (Experimental Animal Center of Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China) were subcutaneously injected in the right flank with 1.0 × 107 cells in 0.2 mL of PBS. Once tumors were formed, tumor volume (V) was measured daily by caliper and calculated using the formula V = (L × W2)/2, where L was the length and W was the width of the tumor. The mice were randomly divided into two groups (n = 6) for inoculation of shRNA transfected EJ cells and negative control (NC) for 27 days. Growth curves were plotted using average tumor volume within each experimental group every 3 days. 4 weeks later, the mice were euthanized, and the dissected tumors were collected. All animal experiments were approved by the animal center of the Southern Medical University.
Statistical analysis
All statistical analyses were performed using the IBM SPSS 20.0 software package (SPSS, Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). Group difference was assessed using Student’s t test. Data are presented as the mean ± SD based on at least three repeats. Differences were considered to be statistically significant at P < 0.05.
Discussion
BCa is one of the most common urinary malignancies worldwide [
14]. Most patients are diagnosed at advanced stage of BCa because patients with BCa are lack of specific symptoms at early stage [
15‐
18]. Nevertheless, the poor understanding of BCa development mechanism has limited the effective adjuvant therapies for BCa [
19‐
21].
To the best of our knowledge, the biological functions of TMEM40 in BCa have not been characterized yet. In the present study, we found that TMEM40 expression was significantly up-regulated in BCa tissues and cells compared with non-neoplastic urothelium. We identified that TMEM40 overexpression is a characteristic molecular change in BCa and explore the biological roles of TMEM40 on the phenotypes of BCa cells in vitro. To investigate the TMEM40 biological functions in BCa, we used CCK8, EdU, scratch assays, transwell and apoptosis assays to detect cell proliferation, migration, invasion and apoptosis, respectively. TMEM40 silencing results in inhibition of BCa cell proliferation, migration, invasion and induced cell apoptosis. Furthermore, TMEM40 knockdown also blocked G1-to-S cell cycle transition and these effects could be reversed by overexpressed it in BCa cells.
In mouse xenograft models for BCa, TMEM40 knockdown was also found to considerably retard tumor formation and subsequent tumor growth [
22]. Moreover, TMEM40 knockdown was associated with downregulated expression of oncogenes (i.e. c-myc) and upregulated expression of tumor suppressor genes (i.e. p53, Rb and JNK2) in BCa cells [
23]. These findings in conjunction with our in vitro data suggested that TMEM40 played important roles in the malignant phenotype regulation of BCa and likely to promote bladder tumorigenesis and tumor progression.
The tumor suppressor p53 is a transcription factor that regulates several cellular stress responses, including DNA repair, metabolism, cell cycle arrest, genomic stability, apoptosis and senescence, through induction of the various transcriptions of target genes [
24‐
26]. We finally investigated the levels of proliferation-related signals (i.e. p53, p21, c-MYC, cyclin D1) and apoptosis-related proteins (i.e. p53, activated caspase-3, activated caspase-9, activated PARP) by western blotting. Our results revealed that knockdown of TMEM40 increased the levels of p53, p21, activated caspase-3, caspase-9, and PRAP and decreased the levels of c-MYC, cyclin D1 in 5637 and EJ cells [
27‐
29]. These findings suggest that TMEM40 was a proto-oncogene which could promote BCa development and progression via the p53 signaling pathway in BCa.
Authors’ contributions
JZ and RS conceived the study, participated in its design and coordination and helped to draft the manuscript. ZZ, QZ and HZ performed the experiments. ZZ and SL coordinated the research and analyzed the data. ZZ and YZ supported the experiments and helped to draft the manuscript. YF and SZ performed the statistical analysis. ZZ wrote the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.