Skip to main content
Erschienen in: BMC Infectious Diseases 1/2016

Open Access 01.12.2016 | Research article

Hospital-acquired infections at an oncological intensive care cancer unit: differences between solid and hematological cancer patients

verfasst von: Patricia Cornejo-Juárez, Diana Vilar-Compte, Alejandro García-Horton, Marco López-Velázquez, Silvio Ñamendys-Silva, Patricia Volkow-Fernández

Erschienen in: BMC Infectious Diseases | Ausgabe 1/2016

Abstract

Background

Cancer patients have a higher risk of severe sepsis in comparison with non-cancer patients, with an increased risk for hospital-acquired infections (HAI), particularly with multidrug resistant bacteria (MDRB). The aim of the study is to describe the frequency and characteristics of HAI and MDRB in critically ill cancer patients.

Methods

We conducted an 18-month prospective study in patients admitted ≥48 h to an ICU at a cancer referral center in Mexico. Patients with hematological malignancies (HM) were compared with solid tumors. Demographic and clinical data were recorded. Mortality was evaluated at 30-days.

Results

There were 351 admissions during the study period, among whom 157 (66 %) met the inclusion criteria of the study as follows: 104 patients with solid tumors and 53 with HM. Sixty-four patients (40.7 %) developed 95 episodes of HAI. HAI rate was 4.6/100 patients-days. MDRB were isolated in 38 patients (24 %), with no differences between both groups. Escherichia coli was the main bacteria isolated (n = 24), 78 % were extended spectrum beta-lactamases producers. The only risk factor associated with HAI was the presence of mechanical ventilation for more than 5 days (OR 3.12, 95 % CI 1.6 – 6.2, p = 0.001). At 30-day follow-up, 61 patients (39 %) have died (38 % with solid tumors and 60 % with HM, p < 0.001). No differences were found in mortality at 30-day between patients with HAI (n = 25, 39 %) vs. non-HAI (n = 36, 38.7 %, p = 0.964); neither in those who developed a HAI with MDRB (n = 12, 35.3 %) vs. HAI with non-MDRB (n = 13, 43.3 %, p = 0.51).

Conclusions

Patients with cancer who are admitted to an ICU, have a high risk of HAI, but there were no differences patients with solid or hematologic malignancies.

Background

Critically ill patients in the Intensive care unit (ICU) are at major risk of Hospital-acquired infections (HAI), related with mechanical ventilation, invasive devices, the use of broad-spectrum antibiotics, and parenteral nutrition, among others [1]. Prompt initiation of appropriate antimicrobial therapy is extremely useful in severely ill patients. After results of cultures are obtained, treatment should be re-evaluated to either de-escalate or escalate the antibiotic prescription. This is associated with optimal costs, decreased incidence of superinfection and minimal development of antimicrobial resistance [2].
Furthermore, cancer patients have a 3- to 5-fold greater risk of severe sepsis in comparison with non-cancer patients, with an increased risk for HAI, particularly with multidrug resistant bacteria (MDRB), which are associated with increased therapeutic failure and high mortality rates [38]. Patients with neutropenia or hematological malignancies (HM) appear to be particularly vulnerable to this situation, compared with patients with solid tumors [9].
The aim of this study was to describe the frequency and characteristics of HAI and MDRB in critically ill patients admitted to an ICU at a cancer referral center during an 18-month period, and to compare patients with solid tumors vs. those with HM.

Methods

The National Cancer Institute (INCan) in Mexico is a 135-bed referral teaching hospital located in Mexico City for adult patients with cancer, with an average of 170,000 medical visits, 7,500 hospital discharges, and 3,500 major surgical procedures per year. The ICU is a six-bed service that serves both surgical and medical patients. All antimicrobial prescriptions are supervised and adjusted on a regular basis by Infectious Diseases specialists.
We conducted an 18-month prospective study of HAI in patients admitted at the ICU from March 2013 to September 2014. The study was approved by the Instituto Nacional de Cancerología Ethics Review Board (“Comité de Etica en Investigación”- INCAN/CI/410/15). Consent was not obtained but patient information was anonymous and de-identified prior to analysis. All patients hospitalized in the ICU for ≥ 48 h were included. The following information was recorded: age, sex, comorbidities, hospitalization and antimicrobials in the previous 3 months, treatment with chemotherapy, radiotherapy or immunotherapy, type of cancer (classified as solid or HM), current status of cancer (complete or partial remission, recent diagnosis, relapsed or progression), stage of disease, reason for ICU admission, time from hospital to ICU admission, severity of illness score using Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation (APACHE II), organ dysfunctions using Sequential Organ Failure Assessment score (SOFA), length of ICU stay, and ICU mortality rate.
Cultures from blood, urine, surgical site, bronchial secretions, and from any other site with clinical suspicion of infection were performed based on the judgment of the treating physician. Bacteria were cultured using standard microbiological methods. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing was performed by means of the BD Automated Phoenix™ (USA) and the Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion technique in case of resistant strains (Clinical Laboratory Standards Institute, CLSI) [10]. The microorganisms isolated and their susceptibility was recorded. The following MDRB were evaluated: Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA); Vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium (VRE); Extended-spectrum beta-lactamases (ESBL) Escherichia coli and Klebsiella spp.; Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Acinetobacter spp. resistant to third generation cephalosporins and carbapenems. Other Gram-negative bacteria were considered MDR if they were resistant to fluoroquinolones, third generation cephalosporins, and carbapenems [11].
Infections occurring at more than one site in the same patient were reported as separated infection events, unless the same bacterium was isolated concurrently. HAI were defined using Centers for Disease Control and Prevention criteria (CDC, 2014) [12], and were classified as follows: Central Line-associated Bloodstream Infection (CLABSI); Surgical Site Infection (SSI); Ventilator-associated Pneumonia (VAP); abdominal sepsis, and Catheter-associated Urinary Tract Infections (CA-UTI). Number of ventilator-days, number of central venous catheter (CVC) days, and urinary catheter-days were also recorded.
Mortality and the cause related were evaluated on days 7, 30 and 90, after ICU hospitalization.

Statistical analysis

The Student t test or the Mann–Whitney U test were used to compare continuous variables depending on whether they exhibited a normal or non-normal data distribution, respectively, and the Chi-square or the Fisher exact test were used to compare categorical variables. Variables with P values <0.5 in the univariate analysis were included in multivariate analysis. A logistic regression analysis was performed for predicting risk for HAI. A cox regression model was performed for survival analysis. Odds ratios (RR) with 95 % Confidence intervals (95 % CI) were calculated. Rates of overall survival were estimated by means of the Kaplan-Meier method and log-rank test. P values ≤ 0.05 were considered statistically significant. Device utilization ratios, site-specific cumulative incidence rates per 100 patients, and site-specific incidence densities per 1,000 days at risk or per 1,000 catheter-days were calculated. Data was analyzed using Epi-Info (ver. 7) and STATA (ver. 12) software.

Results

Three hundred fifty-one patients were hospitalized at the ICU during the study period. One hundred fifty-seven (66 %) patients remained at the ICU for ≥ 48 h and were included in the study as follows: 104 patients with solid tumors (66 %), and 53 with hematological malignancies (34 %). Eighty patients (51 %) were male; mean age was 48 ± 15 years.
Colorectal cancer and liver/biliary tract were the most frequently solid tumors documented. Leukemia (45.3 %) and lymphoma (37 %) were the main HM included. Most of the patients (63.8 %) were in advanced stages of oncological disease stages (III or IV); 27 patients (17.2 %) had metastases.
The most common causes of ICU admission were different between both groups: patients with solid tumors were admitted with hypovolemic shock (26.9 %) and respiratory failure (24 %); while patients with HM had respiratory failure (54.7 %) and septic shock (26.4 %). HM patients had received chemotherapy, radiotherapy or had been hospitalized recently with higher frequency compared with solid tumors. Other clinical and demographic characteristics are shown in Table 1.
Table 1
Demographic and clinical characteristics of patients hospitalized at Intensive Care Unit
Characteristic – n (%)
Total (N = 157)
Solid tumor (n = 104)
Hematological malignancies (n = 53)
P-value
Gender – Masculine
80 (51)
43 (41.3)
37 (69.8)
<0.001
Age (years)a
48 ± 15
50.5 ± 15.5
43.9 ± 15.7
0.009
Comorbiditiesb
   
0.257
Arterial hypertension
Diabetes mellitus
Smoking
Obesity
HIV
Other
31 (19.7)
29 (18.5)
19 (12.1)
19 (12.1)
2 (1.3)
13 (8.3)
23 (22.1)
23 (22.1)
13 (12.5)
15 (15.4)
1 (1)
8 (7.7)
8 (15.1)
6 (11.3)
6 (11.3)
4 (7.5)
3 (5.7)
5 (9.4)
Type of tumorc
   
NHL
HL
Acute leukemia
Myeloma multiple
Myelodysplastic
Germ cell tumors
Gastrointestinal
Cervical
Breast
Skin and soft tissue
Ovarian
Head and neck
Other tumors
22 (14)
2 (1.3)
22 (14)
4 (2.5)
4 (2.5)
12 (7.6)
23 (14.6)
10 (6.4)
10 (6.4)
10 (6.4)
8 (5.1)
7 (4.5)
20 (12.7)
-
-
-
-
12 (11.5)
23 (22.1)
10 (9.6)
10 (9.6)
10 (9.6)
8 (7.7)
7 (6.7)
20 (19.2)
22 (41.5)d
2 (3.8)
22 (41.5)
4 (7.5)
4 (7.5)
-
-
-
-
-
-
Stagee
    
I-II
III-IV
38 (36.2)
67 (63.8)
33 (86.8)
5 (13.2)
50 (74.6)
17 (25.4)
0.211
Oncologic status
   
0.03
Recent diagnosis
Progression
Relapse
Complete remission
96 (61.1)
30 (19.1)
19 (12.1)
12 (7.6)
57 (54.8)
21 (20.2)
14 (13.5)
12 (11.5)
39 (73.6)
9 (17)
5 (9.4)
0
Chemotherapy in the last 30 daysf
48 (30.6)
19 (18.3)
29 (54.7)
<0.001
Radiotherapy in the last 6 months
11 (7)
3 (2.9)
8 (15.1)
0.007
Neutropeniag
9 (5.7)
4 (3.8)
5 (9.4)
0.02
Pancytopenia
20 (12.7)
1 (1)
19 (35.8)
<0.001
Hospitalization in the last 90 days
45 (28.7)
21 (20.2)
24 (45.3)
0.001
ICU admission
   
<0.001
Respiratory failure
Septic shock
Hypovolemic shock
Postsurgical
Post-CPR
Other causesh
54 (34.4)
34 (21.7)
29 (18.5)
13 (8.3)
7 (4.4)
20 (12.7)
25 (24)
20 (19.2)
28 (26.9)
13 (12.6)
6 (5.8)
12 (11.5)
29 (54.7)
14 (26.4)
1 (1.9)
0
1 (1.9)
8 (15.1)
Days from hospitalization to ICU admissioni
2 (1,8)
0 (1,7)
4 (1,13)
0.02
APACHE-II scoreaj
18.9 ± 6.4
18.4 ± 6.7
19.9 ± 5.6
0.134
SOFA scoreak
8.6 ± 3.6
8.4 ± 3.9
9.2 ± 3.1
0.197
aMean ± standard deviation
b HIV human immunodeficiency virus; other comorbidities: 4 patients with thyroid dysfunction. 1 with chronic kidney failure, 2 with chronic liver failure, 1 with Down syndrome, 1 with ischemic heart disease, 3 with neurologic disease and1 with rheumatologic disease
c NHL non-Hodgkin lymphoma; HL = Hodgkin lymphoma; other tumors: lung, bladder, kidney, peripheral nerve, brain
dOne patient who received hematopoietic stem cell transplantation
eStage was documented in 105 patients: 38 solid and 67 hematologic, percentage was calculated with these numbers. The rest of the patients were not stratified because had a neoplasia unclassifiable
fOne patient received sorafenib for kidney cancer and one receive bortezomib for multiple myeloma. Three patients received radiotherapy with concomitant chemotherapy
gFour patients had anemia plus neutropenia, and five had neutropenia plus thrombocytopenia
hKidney failure, cerebrovascular accident, water-electrolyte imbalance, metabolic acidosis and neurologic impairment
iMedian (interquartile range)
jAcute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation
kSequential Organ Failure Assessment
Sixty-four patients (40.7 %) developed 95 episodes of HAI-ICU infection within a median of 7 days from ICU admission (IQR, 4–12 days). VAP was diagnosed in 34 patients (21.7 %), rate of VAP/1000 ventilator-days was 27.6. CA-UTI was the second HAI diagnosed in 22 patients (14 %), rate of CA-UTI/1000 catheter-days was 9.3. When comparing patients with solid tumors vs. those with HM, there were no differences among patients with HAI, VAP, CA-UTI, mechanical ventilation, or ICU length-of-stay. Only CA-UTI/1,000 catheter-days were different, being more frequent in HM patients (p = 0.03). The classification of different HAIs and the infections rates are displayed in Table 2.
Table 2
Hospital-acquired infections (HAI) at the Intensive Care Unit
Characteristic n (%)
Total (n = 157)
Solid tumor (n = 104)
Hematological malignancies (n = 53)
P-value
HAI episodes
64 (40.7)
42 (40.4)
22 (41.5)
0.895
MDRB-HAIa
38 (24.2)
23 (22.1)
12 (22.6)
0.94
Days of ICU stayb
6 (4,11)
6 (4,10)
6 (5, 11)
0.368
Incidence rate per 100 patient-days
4.6
4.6
4.7
0.952
Type of HAIc
    
 VAPd
 VAP/1,000 ventilator-days
 CA-UTI
 CA-UTI/1,000 catheter-days
 CLABSI
 CLABSI/1,000 catheter-days
 SSIe
 Abdominal sepsis
34 (21.7)
27.6
22 (14)
9.3
4 (8.9)
1
13 (8.3)
3 (1.9)
22 (21.2)
27.3
13 (12.5)
7.4
2 (1.9)
0.8
13 (12.5)
2 (1.9)
12 (22.6)
28.2
9 (17)
14.9
2 (3.8)
1.3
1 (1.9)
1 (1.9)
0.83
0.971
0.444
0.03
0.603
0.259
0.03
1
a MDRB multidrug-resistant bacteria (ESBL- Escherichia coli; Multidrug-resistant-extensively drug-resistant (MDR/XDR)- Pseudomonas aeruginosa; MDR- Acinetobacter baumannii; Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, Vancomycin-resistant enterococcus)
bMedian Interquartile (IQ) range
c VAP ventilator associated pneumonia, CA-UTI catheter related urinary tract infection, CLABSI central line associated bloodstream infection, SSI surgical site infection
d131 patients required mechanical ventilation
eSurgery was performed in 72 patients
During the study period, 910 cultures were taken; 172 (18.9 %) microorganisms were identified, including 102 Gram negative (59.3 %), 46 Gram positive (26.7 %), and 24 yeasts (14 %). MDRB were identified in 35 patients (24.2 %), with no differences between both groups (p = 0.94). Escherichia coli was the most frequent bacterium isolated (78 % were ESBL producers). Other bacteria are shown in Fig. 1.
Regarding fungi, there were seven candidemia episodes (three due to Candida glabrata, two due to C. tropicalis, one due to C. parapsilosis, and one due to C. albicans). Three candidemia episodes were associated with severe neutropenia, two with CVC infection, and two with parenteral nutrition. Six of these patients died (86 %), in a mean time of eight days since Candida growth. Aspergillus spp. was identified in broncho-alveolar samples, three patients (two A. fumigatus and one A. flavus), all with hematologic malignancies, severe neutropenia and lung nodules in scan tomography. Two patients with Aspergillus died.
Concomitant infections were documented in 19 patients; two different bacteria were documented in 15 patients (three with abdominal sepsis, eight with pneumonia and four with SSI), one patient had influenza virus with a bacterial co-infection, one patient with CLABSI had a Candida plus a bacteria, and two patients with SSI had two different bacteria plus Candida.
In the logistic regression model, over five days of mechanical ventilation was the only statistically significant factor for HAI (OR 3.12, 95 % CI 1.6 – 6.2, p = 0.001).
30-days overall mortality was 61 patients (39 %): 29 (28 %) with solid tumors and 32 (60.3 %) with HM (p < 0.001).
Sixty-one patients died at 30-day follow-up, no differences were found between patients with HAI (n = 25, 39 %) vs. non-HAI (n = 36, 38.7 %, 0.964); neither at 90-day follow-up (n = 27, 42.2 % vs. n = 52, 55.9 %, respectively, p = 0.09). No differences were found in mortality at 30-day between patients who developed a HAI with MDRB (n = 12, 35.3 %) vs. HAI with non-MDRB (n = 13, 43.3 %, p = 0.51) Fig. 2.

Discussion

In oncological patients, the interaction of multiple factors related to immune supression, skin or mucosal disruption, extensive antibiotic use, complex surgical procedures and the presence of invasive devices, augment the risk of HAIs, leading to an increase in the length of hospital stay, morbidity and mortality [13].
As a result, the number of patients admitted to the ICU, either for cancer-related complications or for treatment-associated side effects is steadily increasing [9].
Although we did not specify the chemotherapy regimens, it is important to consider that hematologic patients, particularly with acute leukaemias, aggressive regimens amplify disease-induced immunosupression and result in severe and long lasting neutropenias which could favour the development of severe infections. This was not confirmed in this study, most likely because of the low number of patients with this disease.
Some studies describe as the main reasons to the ICU admission, septic shock, respiratory failure and hypovolemic shock secondary to extensive surgical resection in patients with solid tumors. In this study we found differences for ICU admission in both groups: in patients with HM the most frequent cause was respiratory failure (54.7 %), it was related to several causes such as pneumonia, acute respiratory distress syndrome, diffuse alveolar hemorrhage and pulmonary embolisms. However, in patients with solid tumors the main reason for ICU admission was hypovolemic shock secondary to schedule or emergency surgical resection (29.9 %). This percentage was higher than the one reported in other study performed in the same ICU (31.6 % for septic and hypovolemic shock) [14]. Reports from other parts of the world not even include hypovolemic shock within the first causes of admission to ICU [1517]. One possible explanation for the high percentage we found, is that patients admitted to our hospital have advanced cancer stages, with tumor adhesion to adjacent organs, therefore require extensive surgeries, with multiple organ resection, which increases bleeds and surgical morbidity.
HAI prevalence varies among hospitals and among countries. There has been reported an increase in patients with cancer during the last decade [18]. Some studies have reported a wide variation rate between 5.3 and 56.1 % [19]. Our HAI rate was 40.7 %. The most frequent infection was VAP (26.7 %, 28.4/1,000 ventilator-days). The VAP rate was similar to the ones described in other ICUs in developing countries (24.1/1,000 ventilator-days) [20]. More than five days of mechanical ventilation was the only risk factor associated to HAI in multivariate analysis (OR 3.12, CI 95 % 1.6 – 6.2, p = 0.001), as has been reported previously [21].
Surgical site infection (SSI) was the second HAI documented: 72 surgeries were performed during the study period; the infection rate was 16.7 (the SSI infection rate reported during 2013 in our institution was 9.9). It is relevant to highlight that 28 % of the surgeries were emergency procedures, and the majority of these comprised complicated and extensive interventions.
In various reports, CA-UTIs are described as the most common nosocomial infection (around 40 %) [22]. These infections do not cause severe mortality or morbidity, but can progress into severe infections such as secondary bacteremia or septic shock, in addition to significantly increasing the hospital costs [23]. We found CA-UTI as the third HAI in the ICU (13.4 %, 8.9 infections/1,000 catheter-days), as the same as reported by other authors [20]. Median of indwelling urinary catheter stay were 16 days in patients with CA-UTI compared with 10 days in non-CA-UTI patients.
The CLABSI rate was 2.5 % (1 infection/1,000 catheter-days). In some U.S. studies, which report prevalence, the range varies from 1.8 to 7.6/1,000 catheter-days [24]. In one research conducted in eight developing countries, the rate varied between 4.2 and 14.4/1,000 catheter-days [17]. The low rate found in this series is attributed to strict standardized protocol of care provided by an intravenous therapy team nurses working for over two decades [25, 26].
E. coli was the most frequent pathogen isolated, 78 % were ESBL producers. This percentage is considerably higher than reported elsewhere in our country (range between 33 and 51 %) [2729], but it is important to note that these studies included patients hospitalized in different wards, not only from ICU where the prevalence of MDRB is usually higher.
In recent years, widespread MDRB in hospitals had complicated the medical care and infection prevention measures. MDRB pathogens are associated with worse outcomes related with inferior therapeutic options and delay in initiation of appropriate therapy, and probably with increased virulence of these strains [30]. In this study we found 24.2 % of MDRB, which is lower when compared to a retrospective study performed from 2007 to 2011 in the same ICU, when the HAI rate was 39.7 % [31]. In another Mexican study with patients admitted in ICU, the incidence of MDRB was 64.5 % [32].
In this report, overall 30-day mortality was 39 % with ranges between 28 % in patients with solid tumors until 60.4 % in HM group. The poor prognosis of patients with HM, especially those who received hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT), has been well documented [17]. We did not have HSCT patients because they are treated exclusively in the transplant unit. We found a difference in mortality related with the cause of admission to ICU: 60 % in patients admitted with respiratory failure, 29.4 % in patients with septic shock and 10.3 % in scheduled surgical patients, but this could be related with the oncology disease, because HM patients had also more frequently respiratory failure. In another study, that included oncology patients admitted at the ICU, the overall hospital mortality was 30 %, (range, 10 % to 70 %) [9, 17].
Early management of organ dysfunction is crucial in the treatment of critically ill patients; late ICU admission has been associated with greater mortality [9]. We found a significant delay in ICU admission in patients with HM (median 2 days compared solid tumors median 0 days), which could be also related with higher mortality in these patients.
Infection control measures are strict in our ICU: at admission, two blood cultures, urine, respiratory secretions and other cultures are required; broad-spectrum antibiotics are initiated as soon as patient arrival. An antimicrobial re-evaluation is made in the first 48–72 h when cultures results are available and according to clinical evolution to either de-escalate or escalate the antibiotic prescription; antibiotics schemes are discussed and reviewed periodically with all staff (intensive care, infectious disease and medical or surgical oncologists physicians); the duration of antimicrobials treatment are shortened as much as possible; surveillance hand hygiene program, and follow antibiotic prophylaxis guides [2].
Some limitations of this study are that the results correspond to a single-center and did not obtain data related to the long-term survival. However, we believe these results provide insight into the prevalence of HAI, particularly MDRB at a cancer referral center, and can be extrapolate results to other hospitals with similar characteristics.

Conclusions

Our study indicates that the prevalence of HAI is similar than other reports performed in cancer patients. There were no differences between patients with HAI vs. non-HAI, neither in those who had a MDRB isolated. Adherence to the guidelines for the prevention and control of infections are the most useful tool to decrease HAI infections and improve outcomes in susceptible patients.

Abbreviations

APACHE II, Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation II; CA-UTI, Catheter-associated urinary tract infections; CLABSI, Central line-associated bloodstream infection; CVC, Central venous catheter; ESBL, Extended-spectrum beta-lactamases; HAI, Hospital-acquired infections; HCT, Hematological stem cell transplantation; ICU, Intensive care unit; MDRB, Multidrug resistance bacteria; SOFA, Sequential Organ Failure Assessment; SSI, Surgical site infection; VAP, Ventilator associated pneumonia

Acknowledgments

We thank the Microbiology Laboratory personnel who are responsible for processing all culture specimens at INCan, Mexico City.

Funding

This study had no funding.

Availability of data and materials

Data were obtained from medical records and microbiology laboratory. Both are available permanently.

Authors’ contributions

PCJ Conception, design and wrote the manuscript. AGH, MLV Acquisition of data. SÑS, DVC, PVF Interpretation of data and revising manuscript for important intellectual content. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
The study was approved by the Instituto Nacional de Cancerología Ethics Review Board (“Comité de Etica en Investigación”- INCAN/CI/410/15). Consent was not obtained but patient information was anonymous and de-identified prior to analysis.
Open AccessThis article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://​creativecommons.​org/​licenses/​by/​4.​0/​), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://​creativecommons.​org/​publicdomain/​zero/​1.​0/​) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated.
Literatur
1.
Zurück zum Zitat Vitrat V, Hautefeuille S, Janssen C, Bougon D, Sirodot M, Pagani L. Optimizing antimicrobial therapy in critically ill patients. Infect Drug Resist. 2014;7:261–71.PubMedPubMedCentral Vitrat V, Hautefeuille S, Janssen C, Bougon D, Sirodot M, Pagani L. Optimizing antimicrobial therapy in critically ill patients. Infect Drug Resist. 2014;7:261–71.PubMedPubMedCentral
2.
Zurück zum Zitat Textoris J, Wiramus S, Martin C, Leone M. Overview of antimicrobial therapy in intensive care units. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2011;9:97–109.CrossRefPubMed Textoris J, Wiramus S, Martin C, Leone M. Overview of antimicrobial therapy in intensive care units. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2011;9:97–109.CrossRefPubMed
4.
Zurück zum Zitat Vincent JL, Rello J, Marshall J, Silva E, Anzueto A, Martin CD, et al. EPIC II Group of Investigators International study of the prevalence and outcomes of infection in intensive care units. JAMA. 2009;302:2323–9. Vincent JL, Rello J, Marshall J, Silva E, Anzueto A, Martin CD, et al. EPIC II Group of Investigators International study of the prevalence and outcomes of infection in intensive care units. JAMA. 2009;302:2323–9.
5.
Zurück zum Zitat Aly NY, Al-Mousa HH, el Al Asar SM. Nosocomial infections in a medical-surgical intensive care unit. Med Princ Pract. 2008;17:373–7.CrossRefPubMed Aly NY, Al-Mousa HH, el Al Asar SM. Nosocomial infections in a medical-surgical intensive care unit. Med Princ Pract. 2008;17:373–7.CrossRefPubMed
6.
Zurück zum Zitat Montassier E, Batard E, Gastinne T, Potel G, de la Cochetière MF. Recent changes in bacteremia in patients with cancer: a systematic review of epidemiology and antibiotic resistance. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2013;32:841–50.CrossRefPubMed Montassier E, Batard E, Gastinne T, Potel G, de la Cochetière MF. Recent changes in bacteremia in patients with cancer: a systematic review of epidemiology and antibiotic resistance. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2013;32:841–50.CrossRefPubMed
7.
Zurück zum Zitat Neidell NJ, Cohen B, Furuya Y, Hill J, Jeon CY, Glied S, et al. Costs of healthcare- and community-associated infections with antimicrobial-resistant versus antimicrobial-susceptible organisms. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;55:807–15.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral Neidell NJ, Cohen B, Furuya Y, Hill J, Jeon CY, Glied S, et al. Costs of healthcare- and community-associated infections with antimicrobial-resistant versus antimicrobial-susceptible organisms. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;55:807–15.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
8.
Zurück zum Zitat Kollef MH, Fraser VJ. Antibiotic resistance in the intensive care unit. Ann Intern Med. 2011;134:298–314.CrossRef Kollef MH, Fraser VJ. Antibiotic resistance in the intensive care unit. Ann Intern Med. 2011;134:298–314.CrossRef
9.
Zurück zum Zitat Kostakou E, Rovina N, Kyriakopoulou M, Koulouris NG, Koutsoukou A. Critically ill cancer patient in intensive care unti: issues that arise. J Crit Care. 2014;29:817–22.CrossRefPubMed Kostakou E, Rovina N, Kyriakopoulou M, Koulouris NG, Koutsoukou A. Critically ill cancer patient in intensive care unti: issues that arise. J Crit Care. 2014;29:817–22.CrossRefPubMed
10.
Zurück zum Zitat Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI): Performance standards for antimicrobial susceptibility testing. Approved Standard M100-S23. Wayne, PA: Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute; 2013. Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI): Performance standards for antimicrobial susceptibility testing. Approved Standard M100-S23. Wayne, PA: Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute; 2013.
11.
Zurück zum Zitat Magiorakos AP, Srinivasan A, Carey RB, Carmeli Y, Falagas ME, Giske CE, et al. Multidrug-resistant, extensively drug-resistant and pandrug-resistant bacteria: an international expert proposal for interim standard definitions for acquired resistance. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2012;18:268–81.CrossRefPubMed Magiorakos AP, Srinivasan A, Carey RB, Carmeli Y, Falagas ME, Giske CE, et al. Multidrug-resistant, extensively drug-resistant and pandrug-resistant bacteria: an international expert proposal for interim standard definitions for acquired resistance. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2012;18:268–81.CrossRefPubMed
13.
Zurück zum Zitat Ariza-Heredia EJ, Chemaly RF. Infection control practices in patients with hematological malignancies and multidrug-resistant organisms: special considerations and challenges. Cl Lymph Myelom Leuk. 2014;14(Suppl):104–10.CrossRef Ariza-Heredia EJ, Chemaly RF. Infection control practices in patients with hematological malignancies and multidrug-resistant organisms: special considerations and challenges. Cl Lymph Myelom Leuk. 2014;14(Suppl):104–10.CrossRef
14.
Zurück zum Zitat Namendys-Silva SA, Texcocano-Becerra J, Herrera-Gómez A. Prognostic factors in critically ill patients with solid tumours admitted to an oncological intensive care unit. Anaesth Intensive Care. 2010;38:317–24.PubMed Namendys-Silva SA, Texcocano-Becerra J, Herrera-Gómez A. Prognostic factors in critically ill patients with solid tumours admitted to an oncological intensive care unit. Anaesth Intensive Care. 2010;38:317–24.PubMed
15.
Zurück zum Zitat Unseld S, Schuepbach RA, Maggiorini M. ICU, hospital and one year mortality of patients suffering from solid or haematological malignancies. Swiss Med Wkly. 2013;143:w13741. doi:10.4414/smw.2013.13741.PubMed Unseld S, Schuepbach RA, Maggiorini M. ICU, hospital and one year mortality of patients suffering from solid or haematological malignancies. Swiss Med Wkly. 2013;143:w13741. doi:10.​4414/​smw.​2013.​13741.PubMed
16.
Zurück zum Zitat Song JU, Suh GY, Chung MP, Kim H, Kwon OJ, Jung CW, Kang WK, Park K, Jeon K. Risk factors to predict outcome in critically ill cancer patients receiving chemotherapy in the intensive care unit. Support Care Cancer. 2011;19:491–5.CrossRefPubMed Song JU, Suh GY, Chung MP, Kim H, Kwon OJ, Jung CW, Kang WK, Park K, Jeon K. Risk factors to predict outcome in critically ill cancer patients receiving chemotherapy in the intensive care unit. Support Care Cancer. 2011;19:491–5.CrossRefPubMed
17.
Zurück zum Zitat Aygencel G, Turkoglu M, Turkoz Sucak G, Benekli M. Prognostic factors in critically ill cancer patients admitted to the intensive care unit. J Crit Care. 2014;29:618–26.CrossRefPubMed Aygencel G, Turkoglu M, Turkoz Sucak G, Benekli M. Prognostic factors in critically ill cancer patients admitted to the intensive care unit. J Crit Care. 2014;29:618–26.CrossRefPubMed
18.
Zurück zum Zitat Sammon J, Trinh VQ, Ravi P, Sukumar S, Gervais MK, Shariat SF, et al. Health care-associated infections after major cancer surgery: temporal trends, patterns of care, and effect on mortality. Cancer. 2013;119:2317–24.CrossRefPubMed Sammon J, Trinh VQ, Ravi P, Sukumar S, Gervais MK, Shariat SF, et al. Health care-associated infections after major cancer surgery: temporal trends, patterns of care, and effect on mortality. Cancer. 2013;119:2317–24.CrossRefPubMed
19.
Zurück zum Zitat Dereli N, Ozayar E, Degerli S, Sahin S, Koç F. Three-year evaluation of nosocomial infection rates of the ICU. Rev Bras Anesthesiol. 2013;63:73–84.CrossRef Dereli N, Ozayar E, Degerli S, Sahin S, Koç F. Three-year evaluation of nosocomial infection rates of the ICU. Rev Bras Anesthesiol. 2013;63:73–84.CrossRef
20.
Zurück zum Zitat Rosenthal VD, Maki DG, Salomao R, Moreno CA, Mehta Y, Higuera F, et al. Device-associated nosocomial infections in 55 intensive care units of 8 developing countries. Ann Intern Med. 2006;145:582–91.CrossRefPubMed Rosenthal VD, Maki DG, Salomao R, Moreno CA, Mehta Y, Higuera F, et al. Device-associated nosocomial infections in 55 intensive care units of 8 developing countries. Ann Intern Med. 2006;145:582–91.CrossRefPubMed
21.
Zurück zum Zitat Coffin SE, Komplas M, Classen D, Arias KM, Podgorny K, Anderson DJ, et al. Strategies to prevent ventilator-associated pneumonia in acute care hospitals. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2008;29 Suppl 31:31–40. Coffin SE, Komplas M, Classen D, Arias KM, Podgorny K, Anderson DJ, et al. Strategies to prevent ventilator-associated pneumonia in acute care hospitals. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2008;29 Suppl 31:31–40.
22.
Zurück zum Zitat Hidron AI, Edwards JR, Patel J, Horan TC, Sievert DM, Pollock DA, et al. National Healthcare Safety Network Team; Participating National Healthcare Safety Network Facilities. NHSN annual update: antimicrobial-resistant pathogens associated with healthcare-associated infections: annual summary of data reported to the National Healthcare Safety Network at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2006–2007. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2008;29:996–1011.CrossRefPubMed Hidron AI, Edwards JR, Patel J, Horan TC, Sievert DM, Pollock DA, et al. National Healthcare Safety Network Team; Participating National Healthcare Safety Network Facilities. NHSN annual update: antimicrobial-resistant pathogens associated with healthcare-associated infections: annual summary of data reported to the National Healthcare Safety Network at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2006–2007. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2008;29:996–1011.CrossRefPubMed
23.
Zurück zum Zitat Wagenlehner FM, Weidner W, Naber KG. Emergence of antibiotic resistance amongst hospital-acquired urinary tract infections and pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamics considerations. J Hosp Infect. 2005;60:191–200.CrossRefPubMed Wagenlehner FM, Weidner W, Naber KG. Emergence of antibiotic resistance amongst hospital-acquired urinary tract infections and pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamics considerations. J Hosp Infect. 2005;60:191–200.CrossRefPubMed
24.
Zurück zum Zitat DiGiorgio MJ, Fatica C, Oden M, Bolwell B, Sekeres M, Kalaycio M, et al. Development of a modified surveillance definition of central line-associated bloodstream infections for patients with hematologic malignancies. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2012;33:865–8.CrossRefPubMed DiGiorgio MJ, Fatica C, Oden M, Bolwell B, Sekeres M, Kalaycio M, et al. Development of a modified surveillance definition of central line-associated bloodstream infections for patients with hematologic malignancies. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2012;33:865–8.CrossRefPubMed
25.
Zurück zum Zitat Volkow P, Sanchez-Mejorada G, de la Vega SL, Vazquez C, Tellez O, Baez RM, et al. Experience of an intravenous therapy team at the Instituto Nacional de Cancerologia (mexico) with a long-lasting, low-cost silastic venous catheter. Clin Infect Dis. 1994;18:719–25.CrossRefPubMed Volkow P, Sanchez-Mejorada G, de la Vega SL, Vazquez C, Tellez O, Baez RM, et al. Experience of an intravenous therapy team at the Instituto Nacional de Cancerologia (mexico) with a long-lasting, low-cost silastic venous catheter. Clin Infect Dis. 1994;18:719–25.CrossRefPubMed
26.
Zurück zum Zitat Volkow P, Vázquez C, Téllez O, Aguilar C, Barrera L, Rodríguez E, et al. Polyurethane II catheter as long-indwelling intravenous catheter in patients with cancer. Am J Infect Control. 2003;31:392–6.CrossRefPubMed Volkow P, Vázquez C, Téllez O, Aguilar C, Barrera L, Rodríguez E, et al. Polyurethane II catheter as long-indwelling intravenous catheter in patients with cancer. Am J Infect Control. 2003;31:392–6.CrossRefPubMed
27.
Zurück zum Zitat Morfin-Otero R, Noriega ER, Dowzicky MJ. Antimicrobial susceptibility trends among gram-positive and -negative clinical isolates collected between 2005 and 2012 in Mexico: results from the Tigecycline Evaluation and Surveillance Trial. Ann Clin Microbiol Antimicrob. 2015;14:53. doi:10.1186/s12941-015-0116-y.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral Morfin-Otero R, Noriega ER, Dowzicky MJ. Antimicrobial susceptibility trends among gram-positive and -negative clinical isolates collected between 2005 and 2012 in Mexico: results from the Tigecycline Evaluation and Surveillance Trial. Ann Clin Microbiol Antimicrob. 2015;14:53. doi:10.​1186/​s12941-015-0116-y.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
28.
Zurück zum Zitat Gales AC, Castanheira M, Jones RN, Sader HS. Antimicrobial resistance among Gram-negative bacilli isolated from Latin America: results from SENTRY Antimicrobial Surveillance Program (Latin America, 2008–2010). Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2012;73:354–60.CrossRefPubMed Gales AC, Castanheira M, Jones RN, Sader HS. Antimicrobial resistance among Gram-negative bacilli isolated from Latin America: results from SENTRY Antimicrobial Surveillance Program (Latin America, 2008–2010). Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2012;73:354–60.CrossRefPubMed
29.
Zurück zum Zitat Morfin-Otero R, Tinoco-Favila JC, Sader HS, Salcido-Gutierrez L, Perez-Gomez HR, Gonzalez-Diaz E, Petersen L, Rodriguez-Noriega E. Resistance trends in gram-negative bacteria: surveillance results from two Mexican hospitals, 2005–2010. BMC Res Notes. 2012;5:277. doi:10.1186/1756-0500-5-277.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral Morfin-Otero R, Tinoco-Favila JC, Sader HS, Salcido-Gutierrez L, Perez-Gomez HR, Gonzalez-Diaz E, Petersen L, Rodriguez-Noriega E. Resistance trends in gram-negative bacteria: surveillance results from two Mexican hospitals, 2005–2010. BMC Res Notes. 2012;5:277. doi:10.​1186/​1756-0500-5-277.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral
30.
Zurück zum Zitat Schwaber MJ, Carmeli Y. The effect of antimicrobial resistance on patient outcomes: importance of proper evaluation of appropriate therapy. (Abstract). Crit Care. 2009; doi: 10.1186/cc7136. Epub 2009 Jan 12. Schwaber MJ, Carmeli Y. The effect of antimicrobial resistance on patient outcomes: importance of proper evaluation of appropriate therapy. (Abstract). Crit Care. 2009; doi: 10.​1186/​cc7136. Epub 2009 Jan 12.
31.
Zurück zum Zitat Cornejo-Juárez P, Vilar-Compte D, Pérez-Jiménez C, Ñamendys-Silva SA, Sandoval-Hernández S, Volkow-Fernández P. The impact of hospital-acquired infections with multidrug-resistant bacteria in an oncology intensive care unit. Int J Infec Dis. 2015;31:31–4.CrossRef Cornejo-Juárez P, Vilar-Compte D, Pérez-Jiménez C, Ñamendys-Silva SA, Sandoval-Hernández S, Volkow-Fernández P. The impact of hospital-acquired infections with multidrug-resistant bacteria in an oncology intensive care unit. Int J Infec Dis. 2015;31:31–4.CrossRef
32.
Zurück zum Zitat Llaca-Díaz JM, Mendoza-Olazarán S, Camacho-Ortiz A, Flores S, Garza-González E. One-year surveillance of ESKAPE pathogens in an intensive care unit of Monterrey Mexico. Chemotherapy. 2012;58:475–81.CrossRefPubMed Llaca-Díaz JM, Mendoza-Olazarán S, Camacho-Ortiz A, Flores S, Garza-González E. One-year surveillance of ESKAPE pathogens in an intensive care unit of Monterrey Mexico. Chemotherapy. 2012;58:475–81.CrossRefPubMed
Metadaten
Titel
Hospital-acquired infections at an oncological intensive care cancer unit: differences between solid and hematological cancer patients
verfasst von
Patricia Cornejo-Juárez
Diana Vilar-Compte
Alejandro García-Horton
Marco López-Velázquez
Silvio Ñamendys-Silva
Patricia Volkow-Fernández
Publikationsdatum
01.12.2016
Verlag
BioMed Central
Erschienen in
BMC Infectious Diseases / Ausgabe 1/2016
Elektronische ISSN: 1471-2334
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12879-016-1592-1

Weitere Artikel der Ausgabe 1/2016

BMC Infectious Diseases 1/2016 Zur Ausgabe

Leitlinien kompakt für die Innere Medizin

Mit medbee Pocketcards sicher entscheiden.

Seit 2022 gehört die medbee GmbH zum Springer Medizin Verlag

Update Innere Medizin

Bestellen Sie unseren Fach-Newsletter und bleiben Sie gut informiert.