Background
Methods
Study sites and mosquito collection
Bioassays with insecticides
Correlation between resistance levels and ecological factors
Species identification and kdr genotyping
Gene expression study with microarrays
RT-qPCR validation
Results
Mosquito species distribution
Area | Pop | Larvae | Adults | Mean | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
N | Frequency (%) | N | Frequency (%) | Frequency (%) | |||||||
An. gamb
|
An. arab
| Other |
An. gamb
|
An. arab
| Other |
An. gamb
|
An. arab
| ||||
Lab strains | KIS | 50 | 100 | 0 | 0 | 50 | 100 | 0 | 0 | 100 | 0 |
IFA | 50 | 0 | 100 | 0 | 50 | 0 | 100 | 0 | 0 | 100 | |
Urban | ILA | 50 | 6.0 | 70 | 24 | 50 | 50 | 30 | 20 | 28 | 50 |
TEM | 50 | 0 | 100 | 0 | 45 | 0 | 93.3 | 6.7 | 0 | 96.7 | |
KIN | 50 | 0 | 89.5 | 10 | 47 | 17 | 32 | 6.3 | 8.5 | 60.8 | |
Non-polluted | ZEN | 50 | 0 | 94 | 6 | 50 | 0 | 98 | 2 | 0 | 96 |
KIL | 49 | 6.1 | 71.4 | 22.4 | 49 | 0 | 100 | 0 | 3.5 | 85.7 | |
MUH | 50 | 0 | 96 | 4 | 50 | 0 | 100 | 0 | 0 | 98 | |
Agriculture | RUN | 50 | 0 | 100 | 0 | 50 | 0 | 98 | 2 | 0 | 99 |
KIF | 50 | 0 | 100 | 0 | 50 | 0 | 100 | 0 | 0 | 100 | |
KAW | 50 | 0 | 98 | 2 | 49 | 0 | 92 | 8 | 0 | 95 |
Insecticide resistance levels
Area | Pop | Deltamethrin | DDT | Bendiocarb | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
LC50 (95% CI) | RR50 (95% CI) | LC50 (95% CI) | RR50 (95% CI) | LC50 (95% CI) | RR50 (95% CI) | ||
Lab strains | KIS | 6.8 (2.6-10.5) | 1 | 407.6 (284.7-786.8) | 1 | 29.1 (20.5-41.6) | 1 |
IFA | 22.9 (21.2-24.8) | 3.8 (2.3-8.1) | 135.2 (115.9-155.1) | 0.3 (0.2-0.4) | 29.6 (23.7-36.5) | 1.0 (0.9-1.2) | |
Urban | ILA | 49.3 (39.5-60.3) | 7.3 (5.7-15.1) | 738.0 (582.2-1011.0) | 1.8 (1.3-2.0) | 73.5 (50.4-132.0) | 2.5 (2.5-3.2) |
TEM | 104.6 (70.0-213.0) | 15.4 (20.2-26.7) | 832.5 (654.1-1154.0) | 2.0 (1.5-2.3) | 42.9 (31.8-61.5) | 1.5 (1.5-1.5) | |
KIN | 67.7 (50.4-101.3) | 10.0 (9.6-19.2) | 722.8 (594.0-922.7) | 1.8 (2.1-1.2) | 82.5 (60.1-137.2) | 2.8 (2.9-3.3) | |
Non-polluted | ZEN | 27.0 (17.6-36.6) | 4.0 (3.4-6.7) | 655.9 (518.9-886.3) | 1.6 (1.0-1.8) | 43.6 (27.4-83.9) | 1.5 (1.3-2.0) |
KIL | 27.0 (16.9-38.8) | 4.0 (3.7-6.4) | 773.5 (651.7-930.6) | 1.9 (1.2-2.9) | 58.9 (39.0-111.4) | 2.0 (1.9-2.7) | |
MUH | 30.4 (21.6-39.5) | 4.5 (3.7-8.2) | 633.8 (503.6-847.4) | 1.6 (1.0-1.8) | 63.0 (41.0-125.6) | 2.2 (2.0-3.0) | |
Agriculture | RUN | 34.6 (26.9-45.0) | 5.1 (4.3-10.3) | 175.6 (147.9-203.4) | 0.4 (0.3-0.5) | 37.5 (29.8-47.1) | 1.3 (1.1-1.5) |
KIK | 103.4 (83.5-136.8) | 15.2 (13.0-31.8) | 172.0 (132.1-213.2) | 0.4 (0.3-0.5) | 103.4 (83.5-136.8) | 3.5 (3.3-4.1) | |
KAW | 30.0 (18.2-49.8) | 4.4 (4.3-6.9) | 164.6 (132.3-197.6) | 0.4 (0.2-0.5) | 34.8 (26.9-45.6) | 1.2 (1.1-1.3) |
Area | Pop | Deltamethrin | DDT | Bendiocarb | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
KDT50 (95% CI) | RR50 (95% CI) | % Mort (SE) | KDT50 (95% CI) | RR50 (95% CI) | % Mort (SE) | % Mort (SE) | ||
Lab strain | KIS | 5.7 (5.0-6.2) | 1.0 | 100 (0.0) | 24.2 (20.8-27.8) | 1.0 | 100 (0.0) | 95 (2.3) |
IFA | 12.4 (11.4-13.5) | 2.2 (2.1-2.3) | 100 (0.0) | 15.7 (6.7-24.9) | 0.6 (0.3-0.9) | 100 (0.0) | 95 (1.7) | |
Urban | ILA | 19.7 (17.6-21.7) | 3.5 (3.5-3.5) | 100 (0.0) | 34.7 (32.6-36.8) | 1.4 (1.3-1.6) | 94.5 (2.2) | 33 (1.4) |
TEM | 22.5 (19.6-25.8) | 4.0 (3.9-4.1) | 98 (1.2) | 52.3 (26.0-32.2 | 2.2 (1.2-1.2) | 98 (1.2) | 54 (1.2) | |
KIN | 10.0 (8.4-11.6) | 1.8 (1.7-1.8) | 100 (0.0) | 27.8 (25.8-30.1) | 1.2 (1.1-1.1) | 95 (3.0) | 20 (4.9) | |
Non-polluted | ZEN | 8.0 (5.8-10.1) | 1.4 (1.2-1.6) | 100 (0.0) | 28.6 (26.7-30.6) | 1.2 (1.1-1.3) | 95 (3.2) | 46 (7.0) |
KIL | 7.7 (5.8-9.6) | 1.4 (1.1-1.5) | 100 (0.0) | 26.7 (24.7-28.6) | 1.1 (1.0-1.2) | 96 (2.3) | 55 (7.0) | |
MUH | 8.9 (6.9-10.8) | 1.6 (1.4-1.7) | 100 (0.0) | 26.5 (24.5-28.6) | 1.1 (1.0-1.2) | 95 (3.5) | 63 (6.6) | |
Agriculture | RUN | 32.8 (30.6-34.9) | 5.8 (5.6-6.1) | 86 (4.8) | 22.1 (19.3-24.7) | 0.9 (0.9-0.9) | 100 (0.0) | 52 (4.3) |
KIK | 32.7 (30.8-34.6) | 5.8 (5.5-6.2) | 84 (4.6) | 22.1 (21.1-23.0) | 0.9 (0.8-1.1) | 100 (0.0) | 54 (7.4) | |
KAW | 30.2 (28.5-32.0) | 5.3 (5.1-5.7) | 87 (5.3) | 22.9 (21.3-24.3) | 0.9 (0.9-1.0) | 100 (0.0) | 60 (2.8) |
Kdr mutation frequency
Area | Pop | Specie | Genotype | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
LL | LS | SS | S frequency (%) | N | |||
Urban | ILA | An. gambiae s.s. | 3 | 3 | 22 | 84 | 28 |
An. arabiensis
| 45 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 45 | ||
TEM | An. gambiae s.s. | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
An. arabiensis
| 92 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 92 | ||
KIN | An. gambiae s.s. | 3 | 3 | 5 | 59 | 11 | |
An. arabiensis
| 7 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 79 | ||
Non-polluted | ZEN |
An. arabiensis
| 91 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 91 |
KIL |
An. arabiensis
| 79 | 1 | 0 | 0.6 | 79 | |
MUH |
An. arabiensis
| 92 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 92 | |
Agriculture | RUN |
An. arabiensis
| 100 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 100 |
KIK |
An arabiensis
| 100 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 100 | |
KAW |
An arabiensis
| 95 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 95 |