Skip to main content
Erschienen in: Endocrine 3/2018

06.09.2018 | Review

Interactions between hypothalamic pituitary thyroid axis and other pituitary dysfunctions

verfasst von: Ulla Feldt-Rasmussen, Marianne Klose, Salvatore Benvenga

Erschienen in: Endocrine | Ausgabe 3/2018

Einloggen, um Zugang zu erhalten

Abstract

Central hypothyroidism is defined as low circulating free thyroxine (free T4) with inappropriately low circulating thyrotropin (TSH), in context of a hypothalamic pituitary pathology. Rare cases of idiopathic central hypothyroidism caused by a functional defect may occur, and the condition is often overlooked due to difficulty in achieving the correct diagnosis, sparse symptomatology of the condition and a high risk of misinterpretion of the biochemical changes in central hypothyroidism. Central hypothyroidism is mainly seen in patients with hypothalamic–pituitary pathology due to one of many possible aetiologies, where other hormone deficiencies often co-exist, and both the presence of other deficiencies and their replacement have a strong influence on the measurement of the thyroid-related hormones and thereby interpretation of the thyroid function variables in relation to the clinical impact of thyroid hormone substitution therapy. Conversely, lack of thyroid hormone has a similar strong influence on the interpretation of other pituitary hormone axes, as well as their replacement. Undertreating patients with central hypothyroidism may have serious metabolic consequences with a potentially increased risk of cardiovascular morbidity. The present review thus aims at describing central hypothyroidism, by an overview of interactions of hypothyroidism with other pituitary hormones, diagnosing/testing for central hypothyroidism, and focusing on consequences of undertreatment. Finally, it is mentioned how to deal with new diagnostic settings with lower a priori likelihood of hypopituitarism, particularly in view of the importance of stringent diagnostic testing in order to avoid overdiagnosing central hypothyroidism.
Literatur
1.
Zurück zum Zitat L. Persani, P. Beck-Peccoz Central Hypothyroidism. In: L. Braverman, D. Cooper, (eds.) Werners & Ingbar's The thyroid. A clinical and fundamental text. 10th ed. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2013; 560–568. L. Persani, P. Beck-Peccoz Central Hypothyroidism. In: L. Braverman, D. Cooper, (eds.) Werners & Ingbar's The thyroid. A clinical and fundamental text. 10th ed. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2013; 560–568.
2.
Zurück zum Zitat U. Feldt-Rasmussen, M. Klose, Central hypothyroidism and its role for cardiovascular risk factors in hypopituitary patients. Endocrine 54, 15–23 (2016)CrossRef U. Feldt-Rasmussen, M. Klose, Central hypothyroidism and its role for cardiovascular risk factors in hypopituitary patients. Endocrine 54, 15–23 (2016)CrossRef
3.
Zurück zum Zitat L. Persani, Clinical review: central hypothyroidism: pathogenic, diagnostic, and therapeutic challenges. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 97, 3068–3078 (2012)CrossRef L. Persani, Clinical review: central hypothyroidism: pathogenic, diagnostic, and therapeutic challenges. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 97, 3068–3078 (2012)CrossRef
4.
Zurück zum Zitat Z. Baloch, P. Carayon, B. Conte-Devolx, L.M. Demers, U. Feldt-Rasmussen, J.F. Henry, V.A. LiVosli, P. Niccoli-Sire, R. John, J. Ruf, P.P. Smyth, C.A. Spencer, J.R. Stockigt, Laboratory medicine practice guidelines. Laboratory support for the diagnosis and monitoring of thyroid disease. Thyroid 13, 3–126 (2003)CrossRef Z. Baloch, P. Carayon, B. Conte-Devolx, L.M. Demers, U. Feldt-Rasmussen, J.F. Henry, V.A. LiVosli, P. Niccoli-Sire, R. John, J. Ruf, P.P. Smyth, C.A. Spencer, J.R. Stockigt, Laboratory medicine practice guidelines. Laboratory support for the diagnosis and monitoring of thyroid disease. Thyroid 13, 3–126 (2003)CrossRef
5.
Zurück zum Zitat J.R. Stockigt, in Endotext, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK285558/ (2011). Accessed February 2018 J.R. Stockigt, in Endotext, https://​www.​ncbi.​nlm.​nih.​gov/​books/​NBK285558/​ (2011). Accessed February 2018
6.
Zurück zum Zitat H. Zulewski, B. Muller, P. Exer, A.R. Miserez, J.J. Staub, Estimation of tissue hypothyroidism by a new clinical score: evaluation of patients with various grades of hypothyroidism and controls. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 82, 771–776 (1997)PubMed H. Zulewski, B. Muller, P. Exer, A.R. Miserez, J.J. Staub, Estimation of tissue hypothyroidism by a new clinical score: evaluation of patients with various grades of hypothyroidism and controls. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 82, 771–776 (1997)PubMed
7.
Zurück zum Zitat M.S. Seshadri, B.U. Samuel, A.S. Kanagasabapathy, A.M. Cherian, Clinical scoring system for hypothyroidism: is it useful? J. Gen. Intern. Med. 4, 490–492 (1989)CrossRef M.S. Seshadri, B.U. Samuel, A.S. Kanagasabapathy, A.M. Cherian, Clinical scoring system for hypothyroidism: is it useful? J. Gen. Intern. Med. 4, 490–492 (1989)CrossRef
8.
Zurück zum Zitat G. Van den Berghe, Non-thyroidal illness in the ICU: a syndrome with different faces. Thyroid 24, 1456–1465 (2014)CrossRef G. Van den Berghe, Non-thyroidal illness in the ICU: a syndrome with different faces. Thyroid 24, 1456–1465 (2014)CrossRef
9.
Zurück zum Zitat A. Waise, P.E. Belchetz, Lesson of the week: unsuspected central hypothyroidism. BMJ 321, 1275–1277 (2000)CrossRef A. Waise, P.E. Belchetz, Lesson of the week: unsuspected central hypothyroidism. BMJ 321, 1275–1277 (2000)CrossRef
10.
Zurück zum Zitat P. Beck-Peccoz, G. Rodari, C. Giavoli, A. Lania, Central hypothyroidism - a neglected thyroid disorder. Nat. Rev. Endocrinol. 13, 588–598 (2017)CrossRef P. Beck-Peccoz, G. Rodari, C. Giavoli, A. Lania, Central hypothyroidism - a neglected thyroid disorder. Nat. Rev. Endocrinol. 13, 588–598 (2017)CrossRef
11.
Zurück zum Zitat S. Benvenga, M. Klose, R. Vita, U. Feldt-Rasmussen, Less known aspects of central hypothyroidism: part 1 - aquired etiologies. J. Clin. Transl. Endocrinol. (2018) (in press) S. Benvenga, M. Klose, R. Vita, U. Feldt-Rasmussen, Less known aspects of central hypothyroidism: part 1 - aquired etiologies. J. Clin. Transl. Endocrinol. (2018) (in press)
12.
Zurück zum Zitat U. Feldt-Rasmussen, Interactions between growth hormone and the thyroid gland -- with special reference to biochemical diagnosis. Curr. Med. Chem. 14, 2783–2788 (2007)CrossRef U. Feldt-Rasmussen, Interactions between growth hormone and the thyroid gland -- with special reference to biochemical diagnosis. Curr. Med. Chem. 14, 2783–2788 (2007)CrossRef
13.
Zurück zum Zitat H. Filipsson, G. Johannsson, GH replacement in adults: interactions with other pituitary hormone deficiencies and replacement therapies. Eur. J. Endocrinol. 161 Suppl 1, S85–S95 (2009)CrossRef H. Filipsson, G. Johannsson, GH replacement in adults: interactions with other pituitary hormone deficiencies and replacement therapies. Eur. J. Endocrinol. 161 Suppl 1, S85–S95 (2009)CrossRef
14.
Zurück zum Zitat M. Klose, D. Marina, M.L. Hartoft-Nielsen, O. Klefter, V. Gavan, L. Hilsted, A.K. Rasmussen, U. Feldt-Rasmussen, Central hypothyroidism and its replacement have a significant influence on cardiovascular risk factors in adult hypopituitary patients. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 98, 3802–3810 (2013)CrossRef M. Klose, D. Marina, M.L. Hartoft-Nielsen, O. Klefter, V. Gavan, L. Hilsted, A.K. Rasmussen, U. Feldt-Rasmussen, Central hypothyroidism and its replacement have a significant influence on cardiovascular risk factors in adult hypopituitary patients. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 98, 3802–3810 (2013)CrossRef
15.
Zurück zum Zitat N.H. Filipsson, U. Feldt-Rasmussen, I. Kourides, V. Popovic, M. Koltowska-Haggstrom, B. Jonsson, G. Johannsson, The metabolic consequences of thyroxine replacement in adult hypopituitary patients. Pituitary 15, 495–504 (2012)CrossRef N.H. Filipsson, U. Feldt-Rasmussen, I. Kourides, V. Popovic, M. Koltowska-Haggstrom, B. Jonsson, G. Johannsson, The metabolic consequences of thyroxine replacement in adult hypopituitary patients. Pituitary 15, 495–504 (2012)CrossRef
16.
Zurück zum Zitat L. Persani, G. Brabant, D. Dattani, M. Bonomi, U. Feldt-Rasmussen, E. Fliers, A. Gruters, D. Maiter, N. Schoenmakers, A.S. Trotsenburg, 2018 European Thyroid Association (ETA) Guidelines on the Diagnosis and Management of Central Hypothyroidism. Eur. Thyroid J. e-pub ahead of print. https://doi.org/10.1159/000491388 (2018)CrossRef L. Persani, G. Brabant, D. Dattani, M. Bonomi, U. Feldt-Rasmussen, E. Fliers, A. Gruters, D. Maiter, N. Schoenmakers, A.S. Trotsenburg, 2018 European Thyroid Association (ETA) Guidelines on the Diagnosis and Management of Central Hypothyroidism. Eur. Thyroid J. e-pub ahead of print. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1159/​000491388 (2018)CrossRef
17.
Zurück zum Zitat S. Grunenwald, P. Caron, Central hypothyroidism in adults: better understanding for better care. Pituitary 18, 169–175 (2015)CrossRef S. Grunenwald, P. Caron, Central hypothyroidism in adults: better understanding for better care. Pituitary 18, 169–175 (2015)CrossRef
18.
Zurück zum Zitat M. Schmiegelow, U. Feldt-Rasmussen, A.K. Rasmussen, H.S. Poulsen, J. Muller, A population-based study of thyroid function after radiotherapy and chemotherapy for a childhood brain tumor. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 88, 136–140 (2003)CrossRef M. Schmiegelow, U. Feldt-Rasmussen, A.K. Rasmussen, H.S. Poulsen, J. Muller, A population-based study of thyroid function after radiotherapy and chemotherapy for a childhood brain tumor. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 88, 136–140 (2003)CrossRef
19.
Zurück zum Zitat A. Lando, K. Holm, K. Nysom, A.K. Rasmussen, U. Feldt-Rasmussen, J.H. Petersen, J. Muller, Thyroid function in survivors of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukaemia: the significance of prophylactic cranial irradiation. Clin. Endocrinol. 55, 21–25 (2001)CrossRef A. Lando, K. Holm, K. Nysom, A.K. Rasmussen, U. Feldt-Rasmussen, J.H. Petersen, J. Muller, Thyroid function in survivors of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukaemia: the significance of prophylactic cranial irradiation. Clin. Endocrinol. 55, 21–25 (2001)CrossRef
20.
Zurück zum Zitat A. Saha, C.G. Salley, P. Saigal, L. Rolnitzky, J. Goldberg, S. Scott, R. Olshefski, J. Hukin, S.A. Sands, J. Finlay, S.L. Gardner, Late effects in survivors of childhood CNS tumors treated on head start I and II protocols. Pediatr. Blood Cancer 61, 1644–1652 (2014)CrossRef A. Saha, C.G. Salley, P. Saigal, L. Rolnitzky, J. Goldberg, S. Scott, R. Olshefski, J. Hukin, S.A. Sands, J. Finlay, S.L. Gardner, Late effects in survivors of childhood CNS tumors treated on head start I and II protocols. Pediatr. Blood Cancer 61, 1644–1652 (2014)CrossRef
21.
Zurück zum Zitat J.G. Gurney, N.S. Kadan-Lottick, R.J. Packer, J.P. Neglia, C.A. Sklar, J.A. Punyko, M. Stovall, Y. Yasui, H.S. Nicholson, S. Wolden, D.E. McNeil, A.C. Mertens, L.L. Robison, Endocrine and cardiovascular late effects among adult survivors of childhood brain tumors: Childhood Cancer Survivor Study. Cancer 97, 663–673 (2003)CrossRef J.G. Gurney, N.S. Kadan-Lottick, R.J. Packer, J.P. Neglia, C.A. Sklar, J.A. Punyko, M. Stovall, Y. Yasui, H.S. Nicholson, S. Wolden, D.E. McNeil, A.C. Mertens, L.L. Robison, Endocrine and cardiovascular late effects among adult survivors of childhood brain tumors: Childhood Cancer Survivor Study. Cancer 97, 663–673 (2003)CrossRef
22.
Zurück zum Zitat A. Garrahy, M. Sherlock, C.J. Thompson, Management of endocrine disease: neuroendocrine surveillance and management of neurosurgical patients. Eur. J. Endocrinol. 176, R217–R233 (2017)CrossRef A. Garrahy, M. Sherlock, C.J. Thompson, Management of endocrine disease: neuroendocrine surveillance and management of neurosurgical patients. Eur. J. Endocrinol. 176, R217–R233 (2017)CrossRef
23.
Zurück zum Zitat M. Klose, U. Feldt-Rasmussen, Chronic endocrine consequences of traumatic brain injury - what is the evidence? Nat. Rev. Endocrinol. 14, 57–62 (2018)CrossRef M. Klose, U. Feldt-Rasmussen, Chronic endocrine consequences of traumatic brain injury - what is the evidence? Nat. Rev. Endocrinol. 14, 57–62 (2018)CrossRef
24.
Zurück zum Zitat S. Roug, A.K. Rasmussen, M. Juhler, M. Kosteljanetz, L. Poulsgaard, H. Heeboll, H. Roed, U. Feldt-Rasmussen, Fractionated stereotactic radiotherapy in patients with acromegaly: an interim single-centre audit. Eur. J. Endocrinol. 162, 685–694 (2010)CrossRef S. Roug, A.K. Rasmussen, M. Juhler, M. Kosteljanetz, L. Poulsgaard, H. Heeboll, H. Roed, U. Feldt-Rasmussen, Fractionated stereotactic radiotherapy in patients with acromegaly: an interim single-centre audit. Eur. J. Endocrinol. 162, 685–694 (2010)CrossRef
25.
Zurück zum Zitat A. Astradsson, P. Munck Af Rosenschöld, U. Feldt-Rasmussen, L. Poulsgaard, A.K. Wiencke, L. Ohlhues, S.A. Engelholm, H. Broholm, M.E. Hansen, M. Klose, H. Roed, M. Juhler, Visual outcome, endocrine function and tumor control after fractionated stereotactic radiation therapy of craniopharyngiomas in adults: findings in a prospective cohort. Acta Oncol. 56, 415–421 (2017)CrossRef A. Astradsson, P. Munck Af Rosenschöld, U. Feldt-Rasmussen, L. Poulsgaard, A.K. Wiencke, L. Ohlhues, S.A. Engelholm, H. Broholm, M.E. Hansen, M. Klose, H. Roed, M. Juhler, Visual outcome, endocrine function and tumor control after fractionated stereotactic radiation therapy of craniopharyngiomas in adults: findings in a prospective cohort. Acta Oncol. 56, 415–421 (2017)CrossRef
26.
Zurück zum Zitat P.J. Snyder, B.F. Fowble, N.J. Schatz, P.J. Savino, T.A. Gennarelli, Hypopituitarism following radiation therapy of pituitary adenomas. Am. J. Med. 81, 457–462 (1986)CrossRef P.J. Snyder, B.F. Fowble, N.J. Schatz, P.J. Savino, T.A. Gennarelli, Hypopituitarism following radiation therapy of pituitary adenomas. Am. J. Med. 81, 457–462 (1986)CrossRef
27.
Zurück zum Zitat L.S. Constine, P.D. Woolf, D. Cann, G. Mick, K. McCormick, R.F. Raubertas, P. Rubin, Hypothalamic-pituitary dysfunction after radiation for brain tumors. N. Engl. J. Med. 328, 87–94 (1993)CrossRef L.S. Constine, P.D. Woolf, D. Cann, G. Mick, K. McCormick, R.F. Raubertas, P. Rubin, Hypothalamic-pituitary dysfunction after radiation for brain tumors. N. Engl. J. Med. 328, 87–94 (1993)CrossRef
28.
Zurück zum Zitat N. Mathioudakis, S. Thapa, G.S. Wand, R. Salvatori, ACTH-secreting pituitary microadenomas are associated with a higher prevalence of central hypothyroidism compared to other microadenoma types. Clin. Endocrinol. 77, 871–876 (2012)CrossRef N. Mathioudakis, S. Thapa, G.S. Wand, R. Salvatori, ACTH-secreting pituitary microadenomas are associated with a higher prevalence of central hypothyroidism compared to other microadenoma types. Clin. Endocrinol. 77, 871–876 (2012)CrossRef
29.
Zurück zum Zitat B.M. Arafah, Reversible hypopituitarism in patients with large nonfunctioning pituitary adenomas. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 62, 1173–1179 (1986)CrossRef B.M. Arafah, Reversible hypopituitarism in patients with large nonfunctioning pituitary adenomas. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 62, 1173–1179 (1986)CrossRef
30.
Zurück zum Zitat U. Feldt-Rasmussen, M. Klose, in Endotext, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK425701/ (2017). Accessed February 2018 U. Feldt-Rasmussen, M. Klose, in Endotext, https://​www.​ncbi.​nlm.​nih.​gov/​books/​NBK425701/​ (2017). Accessed February 2018
31.
Zurück zum Zitat B.R. Haugen, Drugs that suppress TSH or cause central hypothyroidism. Best. Pract. Res. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 23, 793–800 (2009)CrossRef B.R. Haugen, Drugs that suppress TSH or cause central hypothyroidism. Best. Pract. Res. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 23, 793–800 (2009)CrossRef
32.
Zurück zum Zitat S.I. Sherman, J. Gopal, B.R. Haugen, A.C. Chiu, K. Whaley, P. Nowlakha, M. Duvic, Central hypothyroidism associated with retinoid X receptor-selective ligands. N. Engl. J. Med. 340, 1075–1079 (1999)CrossRef S.I. Sherman, J. Gopal, B.R. Haugen, A.C. Chiu, K. Whaley, P. Nowlakha, M. Duvic, Central hypothyroidism associated with retinoid X receptor-selective ligands. N. Engl. J. Med. 340, 1075–1079 (1999)CrossRef
33.
Zurück zum Zitat J. Graeppi-Dulac, V. Vlaeminck-Guillem, M. Perier-Muzet, S. Dalle, J. Orgiazzi, Endocrine side-effects of anti-cancer drugs: The impact of retinoids on the thyroid axis. Eur. J. Endocrinol. 170, R253–R262 (2014)CrossRef J. Graeppi-Dulac, V. Vlaeminck-Guillem, M. Perier-Muzet, S. Dalle, J. Orgiazzi, Endocrine side-effects of anti-cancer drugs: The impact of retinoids on the thyroid axis. Eur. J. Endocrinol. 170, R253–R262 (2014)CrossRef
34.
Zurück zum Zitat M.C. Zatelli, E. Gentilin, F. Daffara, F. Tagliati, G. Reimondo, G. Carandina, M.R. Ambrosio, M. Terzolo, E.C. Degli Uberti, Therapeutic concentrations of mitotane (o,p′-DDD) inhibit hyrotroph cell viability and TSH expression and secretion in a mouse cell line model. Endocrinology 151, 2453–2461 (2010)CrossRef M.C. Zatelli, E. Gentilin, F. Daffara, F. Tagliati, G. Reimondo, G. Carandina, M.R. Ambrosio, M. Terzolo, E.C. Degli Uberti, Therapeutic concentrations of mitotane (o,p′-DDD) inhibit hyrotroph cell viability and TSH expression and secretion in a mouse cell line model. Endocrinology 151, 2453–2461 (2010)CrossRef
35.
Zurück zum Zitat M. Russo, C. Scollo, G. Pellegriti, O.R. Cotta, S. Squatrito, F. Frasca, S. Cannavo, D. Gullo, Mitotane treatment in patients with adrenocortical cancer causes central hypothyroidism. Clin. Endocrinol. 84, 614–19 (2015)CrossRef M. Russo, C. Scollo, G. Pellegriti, O.R. Cotta, S. Squatrito, F. Frasca, S. Cannavo, D. Gullo, Mitotane treatment in patients with adrenocortical cancer causes central hypothyroidism. Clin. Endocrinol. 84, 614–19 (2015)CrossRef
36.
Zurück zum Zitat F. Torino, A. Barnabei, R.M. Paragliola, P. Marchetti, R. Salvatori, S.M. Corsello, Endocrine side-effects of anticancer drugs: mAbs and pituitary dysfunction: clinical evidence and pathogenic hypotheses. Eur. J. Endocrinol. 169, R153–R164 (2013)CrossRef F. Torino, A. Barnabei, R.M. Paragliola, P. Marchetti, R. Salvatori, S.M. Corsello, Endocrine side-effects of anticancer drugs: mAbs and pituitary dysfunction: clinical evidence and pathogenic hypotheses. Eur. J. Endocrinol. 169, R153–R164 (2013)CrossRef
37.
Zurück zum Zitat M. Klose, K. Stochholm, J. Janukonyte, C.L. Lehman, J. Frystyk, M. Andersen, P. Laurberg, J.S. Christiansen, U. Feldt-Rasmussen, Prevalence of posttraumatic growth hormone deficiency is highly dependent on the diagnostic set-up: results from The Danish National Study on Posttraumatic Hypopituitarism. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 99, 101–110 (2014)CrossRef M. Klose, K. Stochholm, J. Janukonyte, C.L. Lehman, J. Frystyk, M. Andersen, P. Laurberg, J.S. Christiansen, U. Feldt-Rasmussen, Prevalence of posttraumatic growth hormone deficiency is highly dependent on the diagnostic set-up: results from The Danish National Study on Posttraumatic Hypopituitarism. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 99, 101–110 (2014)CrossRef
38.
Zurück zum Zitat J.A. Romijn, J.W. Smit, S.W. Lamberts, Intrinsic imperfections of endocrine replacement therapy. Eur. J. Endocrinol. 149, 91–97 (2003)CrossRef J.A. Romijn, J.W. Smit, S.W. Lamberts, Intrinsic imperfections of endocrine replacement therapy. Eur. J. Endocrinol. 149, 91–97 (2003)CrossRef
39.
Zurück zum Zitat A. Agha, D. Walker, L. Perry, W.M. Drake, S.L. Chew, P.J. Jenkins, A.B. Grossman, J.P. Monson, Unmasking of central hypothyroidism following growth hormone replacement in adult hypopituitary patients. Clin. Endocrinol. 66, 72–77 (2007) A. Agha, D. Walker, L. Perry, W.M. Drake, S.L. Chew, P.J. Jenkins, A.B. Grossman, J.P. Monson, Unmasking of central hypothyroidism following growth hormone replacement in adult hypopituitary patients. Clin. Endocrinol. 66, 72–77 (2007)
40.
Zurück zum Zitat J.O. Jorgensen, J. Moller, T. Laursen, H. Orskov, J.S. Christiansen, J. Weeke, Growth hormone administration stimulates energy expenditure and extrathyroidal conversion of thyroxine to triiodothyronine in a dose-dependent manner and suppresses circadian thyrotrophin levels: studies in GH-deficient adults. Clin. Endocrinol. 41, 609–614 (1994)CrossRef J.O. Jorgensen, J. Moller, T. Laursen, H. Orskov, J.S. Christiansen, J. Weeke, Growth hormone administration stimulates energy expenditure and extrathyroidal conversion of thyroxine to triiodothyronine in a dose-dependent manner and suppresses circadian thyrotrophin levels: studies in GH-deficient adults. Clin. Endocrinol. 41, 609–614 (1994)CrossRef
41.
Zurück zum Zitat J.O. Jorgensen, J. Moller, N.E. Skakkebaek, J. Weeke, J.S. Christiansen, Thyroid function during growth hormone therapy. Horm. Res. 38 Suppl 1, 63–67 (1992)PubMed J.O. Jorgensen, J. Moller, N.E. Skakkebaek, J. Weeke, J.S. Christiansen, Thyroid function during growth hormone therapy. Horm. Res. 38 Suppl 1, 63–67 (1992)PubMed
42.
Zurück zum Zitat P. Laurberg, P.E. Jakobsen, H.C. Hoeck, P. Vestergaard, Growth hormone and thyroid function: is secondary thyroid failure underdiagnosed in growth hormone deficient patients? Thyroidology 6, 73–79 (1994)PubMed P. Laurberg, P.E. Jakobsen, H.C. Hoeck, P. Vestergaard, Growth hormone and thyroid function: is secondary thyroid failure underdiagnosed in growth hormone deficient patients? Thyroidology 6, 73–79 (1994)PubMed
43.
Zurück zum Zitat A.A. Toogood, N.F. Taylor, S.M. Shalet, J.P. Monson, Modulation of cortisol metabolism by low-dose growth hormone replacement in elderly hypopituitary patients. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 85, 1727–1730 (2000)PubMed A.A. Toogood, N.F. Taylor, S.M. Shalet, J.P. Monson, Modulation of cortisol metabolism by low-dose growth hormone replacement in elderly hypopituitary patients. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 85, 1727–1730 (2000)PubMed
44.
Zurück zum Zitat L.A. Behan, J.P. Monson, A. Agha, The interaction between growth hormone and the thyroid axis in hypopituitary patients. Clin. Endocrinol. 74, 281–288 (2011)CrossRef L.A. Behan, J.P. Monson, A. Agha, The interaction between growth hormone and the thyroid axis in hypopituitary patients. Clin. Endocrinol. 74, 281–288 (2011)CrossRef
45.
Zurück zum Zitat C. Schmid, C. Zwimpfer, M. Brandle, P.A. Krayenbuhl, J. Zapf, P. Wiesli, Effect of thyroxine replacement on serum IGF-I, IGFBP-3 and the acid-labile subunit in patients with hypothyroidism and hypopituitarism. Clin. Endocrinol. 65, 706–711 (2006)CrossRef C. Schmid, C. Zwimpfer, M. Brandle, P.A. Krayenbuhl, J. Zapf, P. Wiesli, Effect of thyroxine replacement on serum IGF-I, IGFBP-3 and the acid-labile subunit in patients with hypothyroidism and hypopituitarism. Clin. Endocrinol. 65, 706–711 (2006)CrossRef
46.
Zurück zum Zitat J.P. Span, G.F. Pieters, C.G. Sweep, A.R. Hermus, A.G. Smals, Gender difference in insulin-like growth factor I response to growth hormone (GH) treatment in GH-deficient adults: role of sex hormone replacement. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 85, 1121–1125 (2000)CrossRef J.P. Span, G.F. Pieters, C.G. Sweep, A.R. Hermus, A.G. Smals, Gender difference in insulin-like growth factor I response to growth hormone (GH) treatment in GH-deficient adults: role of sex hormone replacement. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 85, 1121–1125 (2000)CrossRef
47.
Zurück zum Zitat T. Wolthers, D.M. Hoffman, A.G. Nugent, M.W. Duncan, M. Umpleby, K.K. Ho, Oral estrogen antagonizes the metabolic actions of growth hormone in growth hormone-deficient women. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. 281, E1191–E1196 (2001)CrossRef T. Wolthers, D.M. Hoffman, A.G. Nugent, M.W. Duncan, M. Umpleby, K.K. Ho, Oral estrogen antagonizes the metabolic actions of growth hormone in growth hormone-deficient women. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. 281, E1191–E1196 (2001)CrossRef
48.
Zurück zum Zitat J.J. Christiansen, S. Fisker, C.H. Gravholt, P. Bennett, B. Svenstrup, M. Andersen, U. Feldt-Rasmussen, J.S. Christiansen, J.O. Jorgensen, Discontinuation of estrogen replacement therapy in GH-treated hypopituitary women alters androgen status and IGF-I. Eur. J. Endocrinol. 152, 719–726 (2005)CrossRef J.J. Christiansen, S. Fisker, C.H. Gravholt, P. Bennett, B. Svenstrup, M. Andersen, U. Feldt-Rasmussen, J.S. Christiansen, J.O. Jorgensen, Discontinuation of estrogen replacement therapy in GH-treated hypopituitary women alters androgen status and IGF-I. Eur. J. Endocrinol. 152, 719–726 (2005)CrossRef
49.
Zurück zum Zitat A.J. Weissberger, K.K. Ho, L. Lazarus, Contrasting effects of oral and transdermal routes of estrogen replacement therapy on 24 hour growth hormone (GH) secretion, insulin-like growth factor I, and GH-binding protein in postmenopausal women. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 72, 374–381 (1991)CrossRef A.J. Weissberger, K.K. Ho, L. Lazarus, Contrasting effects of oral and transdermal routes of estrogen replacement therapy on 24 hour growth hormone (GH) secretion, insulin-like growth factor I, and GH-binding protein in postmenopausal women. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 72, 374–381 (1991)CrossRef
50.
Zurück zum Zitat J.H. Oliveira, L. Persani, P. Beck-Peccoz, J. Abucham, Investigating the paradox of hypothyroidism and increased serum thyrotropin (TSH) levels in Sheehan’s syndrome: characterization of TSH carbohydrate content and bioactivity. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 86, 1694–1699 (2001)PubMed J.H. Oliveira, L. Persani, P. Beck-Peccoz, J. Abucham, Investigating the paradox of hypothyroidism and increased serum thyrotropin (TSH) levels in Sheehan’s syndrome: characterization of TSH carbohydrate content and bioactivity. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 86, 1694–1699 (2001)PubMed
51.
Zurück zum Zitat N.H. Esfandiari, M. Papaleontiou, Biochemical testing in thyroid disorders. Endocrinol. Metab. Clin. North Am. 46, 631–648 (2017)CrossRef N.H. Esfandiari, M. Papaleontiou, Biochemical testing in thyroid disorders. Endocrinol. Metab. Clin. North Am. 46, 631–648 (2017)CrossRef
52.
Zurück zum Zitat L.D. Premawardhana, Thyroid testing in acutely ill patients may be an expensive distraction. Biochem. Med. 27, 300–307 (2017)CrossRef L.D. Premawardhana, Thyroid testing in acutely ill patients may be an expensive distraction. Biochem. Med. 27, 300–307 (2017)CrossRef
53.
Zurück zum Zitat S. Benvenga, S. Squadrito, F. Saporito, A. Cimino, F. Arrigo, F. Trimarchi, Myxedema coma of both primary and secondary origin, with non-classic presentation and extremely elevated creatine kinase. Horm. Metab. Res. 32, 364–366 (2000)CrossRef S. Benvenga, S. Squadrito, F. Saporito, A. Cimino, F. Arrigo, F. Trimarchi, Myxedema coma of both primary and secondary origin, with non-classic presentation and extremely elevated creatine kinase. Horm. Metab. Res. 32, 364–366 (2000)CrossRef
54.
Zurück zum Zitat K. Iida, Y. Hino, T. Ohara, K. Chihara, A case of myxedema coma caused by isolated thyrotropin stimulating hormone deficiency and Hashimoto’s thyroiditis. Endocr. J. 58, 143–148 (2011)CrossRef K. Iida, Y. Hino, T. Ohara, K. Chihara, A case of myxedema coma caused by isolated thyrotropin stimulating hormone deficiency and Hashimoto’s thyroiditis. Endocr. J. 58, 143–148 (2011)CrossRef
55.
Zurück zum Zitat U. Feldt-Rasmussen, P.P. Hyltoft, O. Blaabjerg, M. Horder, Long-term variability in serum thyroglobulin and thyroid related hormones in healthy subjects. Acta Endocrinol. 95, 328–334 (1980)CrossRef U. Feldt-Rasmussen, P.P. Hyltoft, O. Blaabjerg, M. Horder, Long-term variability in serum thyroglobulin and thyroid related hormones in healthy subjects. Acta Endocrinol. 95, 328–334 (1980)CrossRef
56.
Zurück zum Zitat S. Andersen, K.M. Pedersen, N.H. Bruun, P. Laurberg, Narrow individual variations in serum T(4) and T(3) in normal subjects: a clue to the understanding of subclinical thyroid disease. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 87, 1068–1072 (2002)CrossRef S. Andersen, K.M. Pedersen, N.H. Bruun, P. Laurberg, Narrow individual variations in serum T(4) and T(3) in normal subjects: a clue to the understanding of subclinical thyroid disease. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 87, 1068–1072 (2002)CrossRef
57.
Zurück zum Zitat K.J. Welsh, S.J. Soldin, Diagnosis of endocrine disease: how reliable are free thyroid and total T3 hormone assays? Eur. J. Endocrinol. 175, R255–R263 (2016)CrossRef K.J. Welsh, S.J. Soldin, Diagnosis of endocrine disease: how reliable are free thyroid and total T3 hormone assays? Eur. J. Endocrinol. 175, R255–R263 (2016)CrossRef
58.
Zurück zum Zitat M.L. Hartoft-Nielsen, M. Lange, A.K. Rasmussen, S. Scherer, T. Zimmermann-Belsing, U. Feldt-Rasmussen, Thyrotropin-releasing hormone stimulation test in patients with pituitary pathology. Horm. Res. 61, 53–57 (2004)PubMed M.L. Hartoft-Nielsen, M. Lange, A.K. Rasmussen, S. Scherer, T. Zimmermann-Belsing, U. Feldt-Rasmussen, Thyrotropin-releasing hormone stimulation test in patients with pituitary pathology. Horm. Res. 61, 53–57 (2004)PubMed
59.
Zurück zum Zitat B. Biondi, D.S. Cooper, Benefits of thyrotropin suppression versus the risks of adverse effects in differentiated thyroid cancer. Thyroid 20, 135–146 (2010)CrossRef B. Biondi, D.S. Cooper, Benefits of thyrotropin suppression versus the risks of adverse effects in differentiated thyroid cancer. Thyroid 20, 135–146 (2010)CrossRef
60.
Zurück zum Zitat G.A. Brent, Mechanisms of thyroid hormone action. J. Clin. Invest. 122, 3035–3043 (2012)CrossRef G.A. Brent, Mechanisms of thyroid hormone action. J. Clin. Invest. 122, 3035–3043 (2012)CrossRef
61.
Zurück zum Zitat C. Perez-Castro, U. Renner, M.R. Haedo, G.K. Stalla, E. Arzt, Cellular and molecular specificity of pituitary gland physiology. Physiol. Rev. 92, 1–38 (2012)CrossRef C. Perez-Castro, U. Renner, M.R. Haedo, G.K. Stalla, E. Arzt, Cellular and molecular specificity of pituitary gland physiology. Physiol. Rev. 92, 1–38 (2012)CrossRef
62.
Zurück zum Zitat V. Birzniece, K.K.Y. Ho, Sex steroids and the GH axis: Implications for the management of hypopituitarism. Best. Pract. Res. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 31, 59–69 (2017)CrossRef V. Birzniece, K.K.Y. Ho, Sex steroids and the GH axis: Implications for the management of hypopituitarism. Best. Pract. Res. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 31, 59–69 (2017)CrossRef
63.
Zurück zum Zitat J. Jonklaas, A.C. Bianco, A.J. Bauer, K.D. Burman, A.R. Cappola, F.S. Celi, D.S. Cooper, B.W. Kim, R.P. Peeters, M.S. Rosenthal, A.M. Sawka, Guidelines for the treatment of hypothyroidism: prepared by the american thyroid association task force on thyroid hormone replacement. Thyroid 24, 1670–1751 (2014)CrossRef J. Jonklaas, A.C. Bianco, A.J. Bauer, K.D. Burman, A.R. Cappola, F.S. Celi, D.S. Cooper, B.W. Kim, R.P. Peeters, M.S. Rosenthal, A.M. Sawka, Guidelines for the treatment of hypothyroidism: prepared by the american thyroid association task force on thyroid hormone replacement. Thyroid 24, 1670–1751 (2014)CrossRef
64.
Zurück zum Zitat S. Benvenga, G. Capodicasa, S. Perelli, l-Thyroxine in an oral liquid or softgel formulation ensures more normal serum levels of free T4 in patients with central hypothyroidism. Front Endocrinol. 8, 321 (2017)CrossRef S. Benvenga, G. Capodicasa, S. Perelli, l-Thyroxine in an oral liquid or softgel formulation ensures more normal serum levels of free T4 in patients with central hypothyroidism. Front Endocrinol. 8, 321 (2017)CrossRef
65.
Zurück zum Zitat S. Benvenga, When thyroid hormone replacement is ineffective? Curr. Opin. Endocrinol. Diabetes Obes. 20, 467–477 (2013)CrossRef S. Benvenga, When thyroid hormone replacement is ineffective? Curr. Opin. Endocrinol. Diabetes Obes. 20, 467–477 (2013)CrossRef
66.
Zurück zum Zitat M.A. Garmendia, P.S. Santos, F. Guillen-Grima, J.C. Galofre, The incidence and prevalence of thyroid dysfunction in Europe: a meta-analysis. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 99, 923–931 (2014)CrossRef M.A. Garmendia, P.S. Santos, F. Guillen-Grima, J.C. Galofre, The incidence and prevalence of thyroid dysfunction in Europe: a meta-analysis. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 99, 923–931 (2014)CrossRef
67.
Zurück zum Zitat M. Regal, C. Paramo, S.M. Sierra, R.V. Garcia-Mayor, Prevalence and incidence of hypopituitarism in an adult Caucasian population in northwestern Spain. Clin. Endocrinol. 55, 735–740 (2001)CrossRef M. Regal, C. Paramo, S.M. Sierra, R.V. Garcia-Mayor, Prevalence and incidence of hypopituitarism in an adult Caucasian population in northwestern Spain. Clin. Endocrinol. 55, 735–740 (2001)CrossRef
68.
Zurück zum Zitat D. Preiss, L. Todd, M. Panarelli, Diagnosing unsuspected hypopituitarism in adults from suggestive thyroid function test results. Ann. Clin. Biochem. 45, 70–75 (2008)CrossRef D. Preiss, L. Todd, M. Panarelli, Diagnosing unsuspected hypopituitarism in adults from suggestive thyroid function test results. Ann. Clin. Biochem. 45, 70–75 (2008)CrossRef
69.
Zurück zum Zitat M. Livingston, P.J. Twomey, A. Basu, S. Smellie, J.W. Kane, A. Heald, Should free thyroxine go back into the routine thyroid profile? Exp. Clin. Endocrinol. Diabetes 123, 594–597 (2015)CrossRef M. Livingston, P.J. Twomey, A. Basu, S. Smellie, J.W. Kane, A. Heald, Should free thyroxine go back into the routine thyroid profile? Exp. Clin. Endocrinol. Diabetes 123, 594–597 (2015)CrossRef
70.
Zurück zum Zitat C.M. Dayan, Interpretation of thyroid function tests. Lancet 357, 619–624 (2001)CrossRef C.M. Dayan, Interpretation of thyroid function tests. Lancet 357, 619–624 (2001)CrossRef
71.
Zurück zum Zitat C.A. Wardle, W.D. Fraser, C.R. Squire, Pitfalls in the use of thyrotropin concentration as a first-line thyroid-function test. Lancet 357, 1013–1014 (2001)CrossRef C.A. Wardle, W.D. Fraser, C.R. Squire, Pitfalls in the use of thyrotropin concentration as a first-line thyroid-function test. Lancet 357, 1013–1014 (2001)CrossRef
72.
Zurück zum Zitat M. Klose, B. Jonsson, R. Abs, V. Popovic, M. Koltowska-Haggstrom, B. Saller, U. Feldt-Rasmussen, I. Kourides, From isolated GH deficiency to multiple pituitary hormone deficiency: an evolving continuum - a KIMS analysis. Eur. J. Endocrinol. 161 Suppl 1, S75–S83 (2009)CrossRef M. Klose, B. Jonsson, R. Abs, V. Popovic, M. Koltowska-Haggstrom, B. Saller, U. Feldt-Rasmussen, I. Kourides, From isolated GH deficiency to multiple pituitary hormone deficiency: an evolving continuum - a KIMS analysis. Eur. J. Endocrinol. 161 Suppl 1, S75–S83 (2009)CrossRef
Metadaten
Titel
Interactions between hypothalamic pituitary thyroid axis and other pituitary dysfunctions
verfasst von
Ulla Feldt-Rasmussen
Marianne Klose
Salvatore Benvenga
Publikationsdatum
06.09.2018
Verlag
Springer US
Erschienen in
Endocrine / Ausgabe 3/2018
Print ISSN: 1355-008X
Elektronische ISSN: 1559-0100
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12020-018-1738-6

Weitere Artikel der Ausgabe 3/2018

Endocrine 3/2018 Zur Ausgabe

Leitlinien kompakt für die Innere Medizin

Mit medbee Pocketcards sicher entscheiden.

Seit 2022 gehört die medbee GmbH zum Springer Medizin Verlag

Update Innere Medizin

Bestellen Sie unseren Fach-Newsletter und bleiben Sie gut informiert.