Background
Methods
The GA2LEN study—screening and clinical surveys
Dietary intake
Food group | Food items included |
---|---|
Vegetables | |
Leafy vegetables | Lettuce, spinach, chard, fenugreek, wild greens |
Fruit vegetables | Capers, tomatoes, aubergine, courgette, sweet peppers, pumpkin, artichoke, okra, mushroom |
Cucurbitacea
| Cucumber, melon, watermelon, bitter melon |
Apiaceae
| Celery, carrot, herbs (coriander, parsley, chervil, dill), parsnip |
Other root vegetables | Turnip or swede, radish, beetroot, ginger, taro |
Maiz/Corn | Sweet corn |
Alliums
| Onion, garlic, leek |
Brassicaceae
| Brussels sprouts, broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower, coleslaw |
Potatoes | Mashed potatoes, baked/roasted/casserole potatoes, chips/french fries, potatoes in salad, potato dumping/bread dumpling/gnocchi, potato tortilla |
Pickled vegetables | Cucumber, radish, cabbage |
All vegetables | Average intake of all above |
Fruits | |
Hard fruits | Apple, pear |
Citrus fruits | Lemon, orange, mandarin/tangerine, grape-fruit, kiwi |
Oily fruits | Olives, avocado |
Fruit juice | Freshly squeezed fruits |
Berries | Blueberries, strawberries, raspberries (‘forest berries’) |
Nectarines | Nectarine, apricot, peach |
Dried fruits | Raisin, prune |
Tropical fruits | Mango, pineapple (banana assessed individually) |
Canned fruits | Any canned fruits |
Dark pigmented fruit | Cherries, rhubarb, grape, fig, plum |
All fruits | Average intake of all above |
Statistical analyses
Results
Variables | Countries | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Denmark | Finland | Sweden | United Kingdom | Germany | The Netherlands | |
Odense (359) | Helsinki (160) | Total (1261) | Total (173) | Total (376) | Amsterdam (215) | |
Age, years; mean (SD) | 48.1 (14.5) | 46.8 (15.1) | 45.7 (15.1) | 51.6 (13.2) | 48.8 (15.6) | 52.6 (13.9) |
Males, n (%) | 162 (45.1) | 62 (38.8) | 556 (44.1) | 70 (40.5) | 152 (403) | 111 (51.6) |
BMI (kg/m2) | 27.4 (14.8) | 26.5 (4.6) | 25.9 (7.2) | 27.1 (5.6) | 26.3 (4.8) | 25.7 (3.7) |
Age at completing full-time education; years (SD) | 23.4 (5.5) | 23.5 (5.5) | 24.5 (7.7) | 18.1 (3.6) | 20.6 (5.2) | 20.2 (4.6) |
Employment status | ||||||
Employed | 188 (52.7) | 94 (58.9) | 737 (58.5) | 85 (49.7) | 196 (52.0) | 103 (47.9) |
Retired | 82 (23.0) | 32 (20.0) | 199 (15.8) | 39 (22.8) | 88 (23.3) | 56 (21.1) |
Unemployed | 11 (3.1) | 3 (1.9) | 38 (3.0) | 4 (2.3) | 12 (3.2) | 5 (2.3) |
Other | 76 (21.5) | 31 (19.4) | 286 (22.7) | 43 (25.1) | 81 (21.5) | 51 (23.7) |
Smoking | ||||||
Never smokers | 155 (43.4) | 83 (51.9) | 672 (53.3) | 77 (44.5) | 183 (48.4) | 84 (39.1) |
Ex-smokers | 102 (28.6) | 37 (23.1) | 428 (33.9) | 70 (40.5) | 131 (34.7) | 88 (40.9) |
Current smokers | 100 (28.0) | 40 (25.0) | 162 (12.8) | 26 (15.0) | 64 (16.9) | 43 (20.0) |
Asthma score; N (%) | ||||||
0 | 145 (40.4) | 96 (59.6) | 583 (46.2) | 66 (38.2) | 161 (42.6) | 100 (41.0) |
1 | 85 (23.7) | 31 (19.3) | 276 (21.9) | 37 (21.4) | 107 (28.3) | 40 (18.6) |
2 | 50 (13.9) | 15 (9.3) | 195 (15.5) | 22 (12.7) | 47 (12.4) | 37 (17.2) |
3 | 47 (13.1) | 10 (6.2) | 114 (9.0) | 17 (11.5) | 35 (9.3) | 23 (10.7) |
4 | 24 (6.7) | 7 (4.4) | 61 (4.8) | 26 (15.0) | 16 (4.2) | 12 (5.6) |
5 | 8 (2.2) | 2 (1.2) | 33 (2.6) | 5 (2.9) | 12 (3.2) | 3 (1.4) |
Chronic rhino-sinusitis; n (%) | 63 (17.6) | 29 (17.8) | 234 (18.3) | 22 (12.6) | 62 (16.2) | 52 (23.9) |
Asthma ever (n; %) | 115 (32.0) | 44 (27.0) | 510 (39.8) | 80 (45.7) | 83 (21.7) | 44 (20.2) |
CRS only (n; %) | 42 (11.7) | 17 (10.4) | 102 (8.0) | 10 (5.7) | 38 (9.9) | 40 (18.4) |
Both asthma ever and CRS (n; %) | 21 (5.9) | 12 (7.4) | 132 (10.3) | 12 (6.9) | 23 (6.0) | 12 (5.5) |
Total Energy Intake (TEI) | 2577 (761) | 3197 (1140) | 3110 (978) | 2833 (889.6) | 2821 (1049) | 2817 (827) |
Use of nutritional supplements, n (%) | 143 (40.4) | 70 (43.5) | 325 (26.0) | 58 (33.7) | 102 (27.1) | 88 (41.0) |
% people eating fruits (all types) ≥5 times/week | 202 (56.4) | 93 (57.1) | 717 (56.0) | 101 (57.7) | 213 (55.8) | 114 (52.3) |
% people eating total vegetables (all types) ≥5 times/week | 224 (62.4) | 128 (78.5) | 906 (70.7) | 92 (52.6) | 194 (50.7) | 78 (35.8) |
Variables | Countries | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Portugal | Belgium | Poland | Total | |
Coimbra (266) | Ghent (148) | Total (244) | 3202 | |
Age, years; mean (SD) | 47.1 (15.0) | 45.7 (15.1) | 49.7 (15.7) | 47.6 (15.1) |
Males, n (%) | 93 (35.0) | 71 (48.0) | 104 (42.6) | 1381 (43.1) |
BMI, kg/m2 (SD) | 25.9 (5.1) | 24.9 (4.4) | 27.4 (5.2) | 26.3 (5.2) |
Age at completing full-time education; years (SD) | 20.1 (4.6) | 20.6 (6.6) | 20.4 (3.4) | 22.4 (6.6) |
Employment status | ||||
Employed | 140 (52.6) | 75 (51.0) | 89 (38.0) | 1707 (53.6) |
Retired | 56 (26.5) | 26 (17.7) | 86 (36.8) | 664 (20.8) |
Unemployed | 11 (4.1) | 3 (2.0) | 12 (5.1) | 99 (3.1) |
Other | 59 (22.2) | 30 (22.4) | 47 (20.0) | 717 (22.5) |
Smoking | ||||
Never smokers | 172 (64.7) | 75 (50.7) | 111 (45.7) | 1612 (50.4) |
Ex-smokers | 56 (21.1) | 45 (30.4) | 78 (32.1) | 1035 (32.2) |
Current smokers | 38 (14.3) | 28 (18.9) | 54 (22.2) | 555 (17.3) |
Asthma score | ||||
0 | 109 (41.0) | 57 (38.5) | 78 (32.0) | 1395 (43.5) |
1 | 49 (18.4) | 34 (23.0) | 73 (29.9) | 732 (22.8) |
2 | 41 (15.4) | 22 (14.9) | 34 (13.9) | 463 (14.4) |
3 | 27 (910.2) | 17 (11.5) | 28 (11.5) | 318 (9.9) |
4 | 23 (8.7) | 12 (8.1) | 17 (7.0) | 198 (6.2) |
5 | 17 (6.4) | 6 (4.1) | 14 (5.7) | 100 (3.1) |
Chronic rhino-sinusitis; n (%) | 78 (29.2) | 43 (29.1) | 50 (20.2) | 633 (19.5) |
Asthma ever (n; %) | 59 (22.1) | 23 (15.5) | 37 (15.0) | 995 (30.7) |
CRS only (n; %) | 44 (16.5) | 28 (18.9) | 39 (15.8) | 360 (11.1) |
Both asthma ever and CRS (n; %) | 34 (12.7) | 15 (10.1) | 11 (4.5) | 272 (8.4) |
Total Energy Intake (TEI); mean (SD) | 3195 (1296) | 2937 (885) | 3211 (1661) | 2993 (1072) |
Use of nutritional supplements, n (%) | 16 (6.0) | 50 (33.8) | 53 (22.0) | 905 (28.4) |
% people eating fruits (all types) ≥5 times/week | 189 (70.8) | 80 (54.1) | 158 (64.0) | 1867 (57.6) |
% people eating total vegetables (all types) ≥5 times/week | 206 (77.2) | 77 (52.0) | 182 (73.7) | 2087 (64.4) |
Fruit and vegetable groups | Asthma score Effect size (β-coefficient (95% confidence intervals) | |
---|---|---|
Unadjusted (n = 3206) | Adjusted (n = 2945) | |
Fruits | ||
Hard fruits | 0.01 (−0.11, 0.14) n = 3196 | −0.02 (0.15, 0.11) n = 2940 |
Bananas | 0.03 (−0.14, 0.21) n = 3187 | 0.04 (−0.19, 0.27) n = 2934 |
Citrus fruits | −0.05 (−0.19, 0.09) n = 3196 | −0.03 (−0.18, 0.12) n = 2938 |
Oily fruits | 0.25 (0.02, 0.48) n = 3196 | 0.24 (0.01, 0.46) n = 2942 |
Freshly squeezed fruit | 0.16 (−0.03, 0.36) n = 3184 | 0.18 (−0.01, 0.38) n = 2930 |
Berries | −0.07 (−0.32, 0.19) n = 3159 | −0.12 (−0.37, 0.13) n = 2907 |
Nectarines | 0.26 (−0.10, 0.62) n = 3197 | 0.16 (−0.33, 0.65) n = 2942 |
Dried fruits | −1.89 (−3.36, −0.42) n = 3190
| −2.34 (−4.09, −0.59) n = 2937
|
Tropical fruits | 0.13 (−0.31, 0.56) n = 3194 | 0.21 (−0.15, 0.55) n = 2940 |
Canned fruits | −4.62 (−6.50, −2.74) n = 3181 | −5.66 (−11.4, 0.07) n = 2930 |
Dark pigmented fruits | −0.11 (−0.41, 0.19) n = 3201 | −0.09 (−0.37, 0.19) n = 2944 |
All fruits | −0.03 (−0.16, 0.10) n = 3203 | 0.04 (−0.09, 0.17) n = 2944 |
Nuts | 0.21 (−0.12, 0.54) n = 3192 | 0.20 (−0.21, 0.61) n = 2935 |
Vegetables | ||
Leafy vegetables | 0.11 (−0.04, 0.26) n = 3195 | 0.03 (−0.15, 0.22) n = 2937 |
Fruity vegetables |
0.16 (0.04, 0.28) n = 3202
|
0.17 (0.04, 0.30) n = 2942
|
Cucurbitacea
| 0.07 (−0.10, 0.24) n = 3202 | −0.02 (−0.22, 0.18) n = 2943 |
Apiaceae
| 0.05 (−0.12, 0.21) n = 3204 | 0.05 (−0.09, 0.19) n = 2943 |
Other root vegetables | 0.13 (−0.08, 0.33) n = 3200 | 0.12 (−0.13, 0.37) n = 2942 |
Maize/corn | 0.41 (−0.12, 0.93) n = 3189 | 0.47 (−0.04, 0.98) n = 2936 |
Alliums
|
0.27 (0.15, 0.39) n = 3203
|
0.23 (0.06, 0.40) n = 2944
|
Brassicaceae
| 0.30 (0.01. 0.59) n = 3202 | 0.20 (−0.02, 0.41) n = 2943 |
Potatoes | 0.09 (−0.21, 0.38) n = 3194 | 0.002 (−0.24, 0.24) n = 2937 |
Pickled vegetables | −2.32 (−4.17, −0.47) n = 3175 | −1.90 (−3.94, 0.14) n = 2924 |
Legumes | −2.10 (−3.65, −0.45) n = 3196
| −1.98 (−4.13, 0.18) n = 2939 |
All vegetables | 0.12 (−0.001, 0.25) n = 3206 | 0.11 (−0.03, 0.25) n = 2945 |
Fruit and vegetable groups | Effect size (odds ratio (95% confidence intervals) | |
---|---|---|
Unadjusted (n = 3242) | Adjusted (2970) | |
Fruit group | ||
Hard fruit | 0.83 (0.64–1.06) n = 3232 | 0.82 (0.62–1.09) n = 2965 |
Bananas | 1.04 (0.78–1.40) n = 3223 | 0.99 (0.68–1.44) n = 2959 |
Citrus fruit | 0.78 (0.48–1.26) n = 3232 | 0.87 (0.52–1.46) n = 2963 |
Oily fruits | 1.40 (0.91–2.16) n = 3232 | 1.67 (0.91–3.06) n = 2967 |
Freshly squeezed fruit | 0.73 (0.44–1.20) n = 3219 | 0.74 (0.44–1.24) n = 2954 |
Berries | 1.08 (0.61–1.94) n = n = 3195 | 1.23 (0.55–2.76) n = 2932 |
Nectarines | 1.42 (0.84–2.41) n = 3233 | 1.57 (0.79–3.11) n = 2967 |
Dried fruits | 0.95 (0.42–2.14) n = 3226 | 0.98 (0.42–2.32) n = 2962 |
Tropical fruits | 2.14 (1.10–4.16) n = 3230 | 2.50 (0.91–6.92) n = 2965 |
Canned fruitsa
| – | – |
Dark pigmented fruits | 1.01 (0.71–1.45) n = 3237 | 1.11 (0.75–1.64) n = 2969 |
All fruits |
0.75 (0.58–0.96) n = 3239
|
0.73 (0.55–0.97) n = 2969
|
Nuts | 0.47 (0.21–1.06) n = 3227 | 0.64 (0.23–1.80) n = 2960 |
Vegetables | ||
Leafy vegetables | 1.15 (0.86–1.53) n = 3229 | 1.22 (0.86–1.71) n = 2961 |
Fruity vegetables | 1.16 (0.87–1.53) n = 3237 | 1.22 (0.81–1.85) n = 2967 |
Cucurbitacea
| 1.15 (0.85–1.56) n = 3238 | 1.03 (0.73–1.44) n = 2968 |
Apiaceae
| 1.22 (0.93–1.62) n = 3239 | 1.22 (0.90–1.64) n = 2968 |
Other root vegetables | 1.63 (0.98–2.70) n = 3235 | 1.77 (0.89–3.53) n = 2967 |
Maize/corn | 1.64 (0.55–4.87) n = 3224 | 1.74 (0.42–7.22) n = 2961 |
Alliums
| 1.19 (0.91–1.55) n = 3238 | 0.99 (0.68–1.42) n = 2969 |
Brassicaceae
| 1.09 (0.73–1.62) n = 3237 | 1.05 (0.67–1.65) n = 2968 |
Potatoes |
2.27 (1.47–3.52) n = 3229
|
1.82 (1.03–3.23) n = 2962
|
Pickled vegetables | 1.73 (0.88–3.4) n = 3210 | 1.61 (0.72–3.59) n = 2949 |
All vegetables | 1.11 (0.80–1.54) n = 3242 | 1.09 (0.67–1.77) n = 2970 |
Legumes | 1.54 (0.51–4.64) n = 3231 | 1.24 (0.30–5.10) n = 2964 |