The three recent coronaviruses (CoVs) diseases, including Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome CoV 1 (SARS-CoV-1), Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS-CoV), and SARS-CoV-2 (or COVID-19) is associated with the presence of the hyper-inflammatory …

Nociception is the sensory response of an organism to potentially harmful stimuli. It protects the organism from injury and tissue damage [ 1 ]. Peripheral nociceptive nerve endings detect painful stimuli, e.g. strong heat, intense cold, mechanical …

Metabolic inflammation in type 2 diabetes (T2D), caused by over-nutrition, has given impetus to the further investigation of immuno-metabolism linking inflammation to beta cell (β-cell) dysfunction and insulin resistance [ 1 ]. Excess intake of …

Neonatal necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) is the most common and fatal gastrointestinal emergency in newborns, particularly in premature infants, carrying a mortality rate of 20–50%[ 1 ]. It is thought to be a type of over-reactive intestinal …

Two important families of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) are omega-6 and omega-3 which encompass the essential fatty acids of linoleic and α-linolenic acids, respectively. These essential fatty acids are converted into other fatty acids within …

Gouty arthritis (GA) is an ancient form of inflammatory arthritis that causes hot, red, tender, swollen joints, and is commonly observed in the metatarsal–phalangeal joint [ 1 , 2 ]. GA can develop as a response to the deposition of monosodium …

The Notch signaling pathway was first described in 1916 through genetic research on Drosophila melanogaster, in which a locus was identified upon the event of mutation, and notches in the wings of the insect were found [ 1 ], hence the name "Notch …

Idiopathic osteoarthritis is traditionally considered a disease of mechanical cartilage degradation [ 1 ]. Research now characterizes osteoarthritis as a complex disease process involving both mechanical factors and inflammatory contributors [ 2 ].

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), a complicated and clinically diverse autoimmune disease, is primarily caused by autoantibodies production and immune complexes deposition, ultimately altering the functions of multiple organs [ 1 ]. The immune …

Macrophages are mononuclear cells that play prominent roles in immune responses. They exhibit their defensive roles mainly through phagocytosis. In addition, they regulate lymphocytes’ activation and proliferation, and they have crucial role in …

Intervertebral disc degeneration (IDD) is a long-term, expensive and high-occurrence musculoskeletal disorder, and causes back/neck and radicular-related pain, or even leads to disability [ 1 , 2 ]. IDD is an age-related illness and has high …

Familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP) is a rare inherited disease that results from an autosomal dominant genetic alteration in the adenomatous polyposis coli ( APC ) gene [ 1 ]. Patients with this disease [ 2 ] characteristically develop hundreds …

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a complex chronic inflammatory disorder characterized by a chronic illness of unknown etiology [ 1 ]. Crohn’s disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC) are two similar, yet distinct subtypes of IBD [ 2 ]. Both …