Background
Severe malaria caused by
Plasmodium falciparum continues to be one of the leading infectious causes of morbidity and mortality in children worldwide [
1,
2]. At first, the infection is most often manifested as an uncomplicated illness with non-specific symptomatology before it can rapidly progress into severe malaria with the majority of deaths occurring within 24 h of admission [
3‐
5]. Importantly though, although the number of severe cases and deaths due to the disease is high, the absolute majority of patients never reach those stages in disease progression. At present, the understanding of the underlying, highly variable disease pathogenesis is limited.
The outcome of the disease is a result of the intimate interaction between the biology of the parasite and the pathophysiology of the human host during an on-going infection. Certain aspects of the host pathophysiology are well-known. For example, the early stages of clinical illness are known to be characterized by an imbalance in pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines as a response to parasitized erythrocytes [
6]. Increasing parasite loads further augment this imbalance. This mirrors what is often seen during the acute phase response to other types of infections, with elevated plasma levels of molecules such as c-reactive protein (CRP), lipopolysaccharide binding protein (LBP) and the cytokines tumour necrosis factor (TNF), interleukin 10 (Il-10) and interferon-gamma, among others [
7‐
11]. As the
P. falciparum malaria progresses to the severe form, this imbalance becomes even more profound, pointing to an exaggerated human immune response as one key aspect in the pathogenesis of the disease.
Severe and fatal malaria has also been intrinsically linked to the sequestration of
P. falciparum parasitized erythrocytes to platelets, uninfected erythrocytes and endothelium of the peripheral microvasculature [
12]. Sequestration of high parasite loads in various vital organs, in concert with the pathophysiological response of the host, are major reasons for the complexity of the severe malaria syndrome, with potential multi-organ consequences and failures. Besides the resulting physical blockade of oxygen transport, this sequestration leads to activation of the endothelium resulting in further inflammatory response, dysregulation of coagulation as well as release of microparticles of both endothelial, platelet and erythrocyte origin [
13,
14]. In addition, the metabolism of the sequestered parasites also results in alterations in metabolic pathways of the affected organs and the resulting complications are increasingly recognized as contributors to tissue damage and severe disease [
15,
16].
Thus, certain factors involved in the interaction between the parasite and the host and how these collectively contribute to the
P. falciparum malaria pathogenesis are known. There is however still a major gap in the understanding of both general and specific mechanisms behind the appearance of uncomplicated malaria and in particular the various and discrete forms of complications presented in severely ill patients [
17‐
20]. Identification and exploration of these mechanisms, with a consequential improved understanding of the pathogenesis, is vital in order to predict and prevent the disease to occur. This, in turn, is essential for ongoing malaria eradication efforts.
High-throughput screens of host protein levels in plasma present unprecedented opportunities to identify human proteins associated with disease pathogenesis. A previous in-house study by Bachmann et al. used suspension bead arrays and more than 1000 antibodies from the Human Protein Atlas (
http://www.proteinatlas.org) to identify a protein panel discriminating patients with uncomplicated and different categories of severe malaria in a cohort of 700 paediatric samples from Nigeria [
21]. Here the aim is to further increase the conceptual understanding of the interaction between the parasite and the human host. To achieve this, a targetted affinity-based proteomics approach was employed to profile 541 plasma samples from a paediatric cohort collected in Rwanda. With this approach, several of the malaria-associated proteins previously found by Bachmann et al. [
21] have been identified alongside well-known proteins that display differential levels at different stages of the infection, as well as new leads for the exploration of parasite virulence and human pathophysiology in malaria.
Discussion
Herein is a comparative survey of proteins present at divergent levels in malaria patients at different clinical spectra of the disease and healthy community controls. This exploration aimed to increase the understanding of the host-parasite interaction and pathogenesis of the malaria disease, with a bearing towards the identification of putative prognostic protein markers. To accomplish this, an antibody-based suspension bead array approach with a targetted selection of antibodies towards human proteins was used. This selection included proteins previously identified as being of variable abundance during malaria infection, as well as a hypothesis-driven inclusion of antibodies towards proteins of unclear or unknown role in disease progression. Indeed, identification of a number of the proteins previously linked to malaria infection were identified. These proteins are involved in a range of biological processes including inflammatory response. The fact that these findings now have been replicated in several cohorts of patients, including the Rwandan cohort presented here, argues that the reliability and robustness of the proposed candidate markers are high. Moreover, proteins elevated in patients with malaria displayed a rising step trend with incremental levels as the disease progress to severe was observed. Thereby, a number of protein signatures were found that may shed light on the intricate interplay between the pathogen and the host.
Erythrocyte plasma membrane proteins were here identified as being elevated in malaria cases compared to controls and in severe malaria compared to mild malaria (GYPC) or increased in febrile convulsions compared to cerebral malaria (ANK1, MPP1). Interestingly, prior studies have found these three proteins (together with CA2) in microvesicles derived from parasitized erythrocytes [
41]. To the best of our knowledge, there have been no reports of soluble forms of these three proteins in plasma reported to date. However, verification is needed to identify if the affinity proteomics findings are of soluble or vesicular origin. Further, two proteins of the immune response, that previously have been identified in different types of microvesicles: ITGAV [
42] and CD80 were also found [
43]. Previous studies have shown that certain parasite-derived molecules within host-derived extracellular microvesicles could be implicated in modulating leukocytic transcription and cytokine and chemokine responses and it has been suggested that these could be linked to parasite virulence and severe disease [
44‐
48]. The identification of elevated levels of host proteins of possible microvesicular origin in patients with severe malaria supports these findings. If true, this suggests microvesicles from infected erythrocytes to be of very high relevance for the pathogenesis of the disease.
Cytoadherence is a central process in the biology of the
P. falciparum malaria parasite as the adherence to the vascular endothelium protects the parasite from splenic clearance. The cytoadherence properties of infected erythrocytes are also intimately linked to severe malaria, as the resulting vascular occlusion prevents proper oxygenation of surrounding tissues and organs [
49‐
52]. In line with previous findings [
38], cytoadherence linked proteins VWF and ADAMTS13 were identified to vary in plasma abundance between malaria-infected and uninfected individuals. However, in previous findings by others, inhibition of ADAMTS13 has been reported while an increase in relative protein levels was observed here. This may not represent contradictory results, as relative protein levels and enzymatic activity are not necessarily interlinked.
Intriguingly, this study also identified proteins with a connection to cell adhesion and migration of substantially lower abundance in plasma of malaria patients compared to healthy controls. The decrease in CCL5 levels during malaria infection has been suggested to be a result of malaria-induced thrombocytopaenia [
53]. Thrombocytes have also been identified to secrete SPARC [
54], thus decreased levels of SPARC could also be the result of thrombocytopaenia. However, SPARC is also present in the extracellular matrix of a wide variety of other cells and tissues, including platelets, immune cells and endothelial cells, where abundance is particularly high in the latter. TNF is an inhibitor of SPARC which inhibits CEBPA [
55] which could explain the opposite trends in protein profiles. Furthermore, VWF and SPARC have also been shown to share the same binding site of collagen [
56], potentially competing for binding. The herein identified lowered abundance of SPARC could thus potentially aid the parasite in the process of sequestration as a reduction of anti-adhesive antigens could alter the adhesive potential of the host endothelial cells. However, the mechanistic modes by which plasma levels of SPARC could be reduced are many. There is a need to further investigate the possible anti-adhesive potential of SPARC during malaria infection experimentally.
The host proteins identified herein as variable upon malaria infection could serve purposes beyond providing clues to the understanding of host-parasite interaction and the pathogenesis of the disease. Although many of the targetted proteins are part of the pro- and anti-inflammatory responses that are shared with other infections, many others could potentially serve as prognostic markers for malaria infection. Microscopic examination of patient blood smears is still considered the golden standard of malaria diagnostics, but the specificity and sensitivity of this approach depend heavily on highly trained personnel [
57,
58]. Antibody-based rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs) can be used with limited training and are often used as a complement to microscopy. However, recently it has been reported that one of the currently used RDTs suffers from both sensitivity and specificity issues [
59‐
62]. Thus, complementing the existing diagnostic portfolio with new markers could be invaluable to ongoing efforts to eliminate and eradicate the disease. However, although evaluating the diagnostic potential of host protein markers would be attractive due to the possibility to prevent misdiagnosis due to natural selection of the targetted parasite antigens, this is a non-trivial task. Reference baseline levels of many proteins are highly individual [
63,
64] and can affect the prognostic prediction power. Therefore, analysing longitudinal samples from patients with malaria infection would be needed to ensure prognostic prediction power as well as elucidate the timeframe needed for individual proteins to revert to baseline levels post infection. To further assure the usefulness of these candidate markers, disease controls from other illnesses such as bacterial and viral infections would also need to be investigated to reveal whether identified markers, by themselves or in combinations, are malaria-specific or not.
Conclusions
Levels of 115 carefully selected human proteins were analysed in 541 paediatric plasma samples from community controls and patients with mild and various types of severe malaria, collected in Rwanda, by affinity proteomics. The results validate the previous findings of protein candidate markers associated with malaria infection done with the same affinity approach. New potential markers were identified that could be important leads towards an increased understanding of host-parasite interaction and pathogenesis of the disease. This study shows that a set of proteins, either individually or as a part of a panel, can display a highly significant discriminatory capacity between controls and malaria cases. Furthermore, a set of promising candidate markers were identified that significantly separate mild and severe malaria cases, despite the clinical overlap between these disease states. Consistent with the current literature, the identified increased levels of a variety of proteins related to acute phase immune responses and cytoadherence, but also new proteins that could be either linked to the same or other pathophysiological phenomena, such as infection-related microvesicular loads. Further evaluation and characterization of these presented proteins could enable increased understanding of their infection-biological roles and function. By increasing the understanding of the underlying mechanisms behind the clinical manifestations, this could potentially become an important component to improve treatment and prediction of disease progression.
Authors’ contributions
PR, PN, UR, BA conceived the idea of the project. JO, JN, SvB, EL were involved in the ethical conduct of the study and coordinated sample collection. BA, PN, SoB, PR, UR, JN designed the experimental work while SoB and PR performed the experimental work. PR, SoB, PN analysed and interpreted data while PN, UR, JN, HAS, MW supervised the project. PN and MU provided reagents, materials and analysis tools. PR, SoB, UR, PN, JN wrote the manuscript with input from the co-authors. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.