Background
Lifestyle and health
Which lifestyle choices are beneficial to mental health?
Body mass index
Physical activity
Mental or cultural activities
Alcohol consumption
Smoking
Vegetarian diet
Social rhythm irregularity
The present study
Method
Procedure
Participants
Measures
Body mass index
Frequency of physical and mental activity
Alcohol consumption
Smoking
Vegetarian diet
Social rhythm irregularity
Positive mental health
Mental health problems
Data analyses
Results
Sample characteristics
German students | Chinese students | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n
|
M
|
SD
|
n
|
M
|
SD
|
t (df)
|
p
|
d
| |
Lifestyle factors | |||||||||
Body mass index | 2981 | 22.88 | 3.87 | 11350 | 20.49 | 2.66 | 39.29 (14461) | < .001 | 0.65 |
Physical activity (range: 0 to 4) | 2991 | 2.24 | 1.19 | 12405 | 2.38 | 1.05 | −6.36 (15394) | < .001 | 0.10 |
Mental activity (range: 0 to 4) | 2991 | 2.72 | 1.10 | 12402 | 3.05 | 1.09 | −14.62 (15391) | < .001 | 0.24 |
Alcohol frequency (range: 0 to 4) | 2991 | 1.43 | 1.00 | 12371 | 0.65 | .89 | 42.12 (15360) | < .001 | 0.68 |
Social rhythm irregularity (range: 10 to 60) | 2991 | 29.58 | 9.01 | 12338 | 26.81 | 9.33 | 14.71 (15327) | < .001 | 0.24 |
n
| % |
n
| % | χ2 |
p
|
d
| |||
Smoking (% yes) | 608 | 20.3 | 1355 | 10.9 | 191.13 (1) | < .001 | 0.22 | ||
Vegetarian diet (% yes) | 482 | 16.1 | 2734 | 22.2 | 55.45 (1) | < .001 | 0.12 | ||
n
|
M
|
SD
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n
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M
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SD
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t (df)
|
p
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d
| |
Mental health at baseline | |||||||||
Positive mental health (range: 0 to 27) | 2979 | 18.13 | 5.46 | 12375 | 19.90 | 5.21 | −16.52 (15352) | < .001 | 0.27 |
Mental health problems (range: 0 to 63) | 2624 | 15.17 | 10.98 | 12306 | 9.50 | 10.14 | 25.65 (14928) | < .001 | 0.42 |
n
|
M
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SD
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n
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M
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SD
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t (df)
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p
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d
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Mental health at follow-up | |||||||||
Positive mental health (range: 0 to 27) | 632 | 18.23 | 5.58 | 8920 | 20.15 | 5.30 | −8.79 (9550) | < .001 | 0.18 |
Mental health problems (range: 0 to 63) | 600 | 14.16 | 10.53 | 8834 | 9.39 | 10.96 | 10.32 (9432) | < .001 | 0.21 |
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
PMHa Baseline | 1 | 1 | .52*** | −.45*** | −.32*** | −.06*** | −.07*** | −.02 | .15*** | .06*** | .03* | −.08*** | −.06*** | −.21*** |
PMH Follow-up | 2 | .33*** | 1 | −.36*** | −.45*** | −.06 | −.05 | −.01 | .11*** | .03 | .03 | −.04 | −.02 | −.19*** |
MHPb Baseline | 3 | −.42*** | −.24*** | 1 | .44*** | .09*** | .04** | .01 | −.11*** | −.08*** | −.02 | .10*** | .07*** | .22*** |
MHP Follow-up | 4 | −.22*** | −.41*** | .29*** | 1 | .10*** | .01 | −.01 | −.08*** | −.04 | −.09*** | .03 | .02 | .18*** |
Gender | 5 | .00 | .02* | −.02* | −.09*** | 1 | −.02 | −.21*** | −.08*** | .02 | −.10*** | −.01 | .13*** | −.02 |
Age | 6 | .02** | .05*** | −.02** | −.03*** | −.02** | 1 | .14*** | −.08*** | −.01 | .04** | .11*** | .05** | .08*** |
Body mass index | 7 | .01* | .01 | .00 | .00 | −.20*** | .03*** | 1 | −.02 | −.01 | .03* | .05** | −.06*** | .05*** |
Physical activity | 8 | .13*** | .09*** | −.11*** | −.06*** | −.17*** | −.07*** | .07*** | 1 | −.01 | .05** | −.12*** | −.02 | −.13*** |
Mental activity | 9 | .12*** | .09*** | −.11*** | −.08*** | −.02** | −.03*** | .02** | .19*** | 1 | .05** | −.03 | .07*** | −.05*** |
Alcohol frequency | 10 | −.03*** | −.04*** | .07*** | .09*** | −.39*** | −.01 | .08*** | .10*** | −.01 | 1 | .23*** | .03 | .04** |
Smoking (no/yes) | 11 | −.05*** | −.04*** | .08*** | .11*** | −.31*** | .00 | .05*** | .06*** | −.06*** | .38*** | 1 | .06** | .12*** |
Vegetarian diet (no/yes) | 12 | −.01 | −.03** | .04*** | .07*** | −.09*** | −.02* | .00 | .04*** | −.07*** | .07*** | .13*** | 1 | .06*** |
Irregular social rhythm | 13 | −.26*** | −.17*** | .28*** | .16*** | −.01 | −.07*** | −.03*** | −.16*** | −.13*** | .08*** | .07*** | .02** | 1 |
Lifestyle choices and mental health in German students
Outcome | Positive mental health (PMH) | Mental health problems (MHP) | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Fixed effects | β | SE (β) |
t
|
p
|
d
| β | SE (β) |
t
|
p
|
d
|
Cross-sectional analysis | ||||||||||
Gender (male/female) | −.07 | 0.02 | −3.85 | < .001 | 0.15 | .11 | 0.02 | 6.05 | < .001 | 0.23 |
Age | −.02 | 0.02 | −1.27 | .204 | 0.05 | −.03 | 0.02 | −1.52 | .128 | 0.06 |
Body mass index | −.04 | 0.02 | −2.13 | .033 | 0.08 | .05 | 0.02 | 2.39 | .017 | 0.09 |
Physical activity | .13 | 0.02 | 7.64 | < .001 | 0.29 | −.07 | 0.02 | −3.56 | < .001 | 0.14 |
Mental activity | .08 | 0.02 | 4.43 | < .001 | 0.17 | −.09 | 0.02 | −5.24 | < .001 | 0.20 |
Alcohol frequency | .04 | 0.02 | 2.44 | .015 | 0.09 | −.02 | 0.02 | −1.16 | .245 | 0.04 |
Smoking (no/yes) | −.05 | 0.02 | −2.65 | .008 | 0.10 | .08 | 0.02 | 4.24 | < .001 | 0.16 |
Vegetarian diet (no/yes) | −.05 | 0.02 | −2.88 | .004 | 0.11 | .07 | 0.02 | 3.64 | < .001 | 0.14 |
Social rhythm irregularity | −.26 | 0.02 | −15.33 | < .001 | 0.59 | .28 | 0.02 | 15.50 | < .001 | 0.60 |
Longitudinal analysis | ||||||||||
Baseline positive mental health (PMH) | .55 | 0.03 | 16.61 | < .001 | 0.64 | −.09 | 0.04 | −2.19 | .028 | 0.08 |
Baseline mental health problems (MHP) | −.12 | 0.04 | −3.22 | .001 | 0.12 | .52 | 0.04 | 14.02 | < .001 | 0.54 |
Gender (male/female) | −.05 | 0.03 | −1.51 | .130 | 0.06 | .08 | 0.03 | 2.45 | .014 | 0.09 |
Age | −.02 | 0.03 | −0.56 | .573 | 0.02 | .00 | 0.03 | −0.05 | .963 | 0.00 |
Body mass index | −.03 | 0.03 | −1.11 | .265 | 0.04 | .03 | 0.03 | 0.77 | .442 | 0.03 |
Physical activity | .03 | 0.03 | 0.82 | .414 | 0.03 | .03 | 0.03 | 0.76 | .447 | 0.03 |
Mental activity | −.03 | 0.03 | −1.15 | .251 | 0.04 | .00 | 0.03 | −0.04 | .970 | 0.00 |
Alcohol frequency | −.02 | 0.03 | −0.51 | .610 | 0.02 | −.02 | 0.03 | −0.70 | .481 | 0.03 |
Smoking (no/yes) | .00 | 0.03 | 0.11 | .910 | 0.00 | .03 | 0.03 | 1.01 | .311 | 0.04 |
Vegetarian diet (no/yes) | .05 | 0.03 | 1.62 | .105 | 0.06 | −.05 | 0.03 | −1.60 | .111 | 0.06 |
Social rhythm irregularity | −.09 | 0.03 | −2.72 | .007 | 0.10 | .08 | 0.04 | 2.19 | .028 | 0.08 |
Positive mental health
Mental health problems
Lifestyle and mental health in Chinese students
Outcome | Positive mental health (PMH) | Mental health problems (MHP) | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Fixed effects | β | SE (β) |
t
|
p
|
d
| β | SE (β) |
t
|
p
|
d
|
Cross-sectional analysis | ||||||||||
Gender (male/female) | .01 | 0.01 | 0.70 | .487 | 0.01 | −.01 | 0.01 | −1.08 | .279 | 0.02 |
Age | .02 | 0.01 | 2.36 | .018 | 0.05 | −.03 | 0.01 | −2.81 | .005 | 0.05 |
Body mass index | .01 | 0.01 | 0.97 | .332 | 0.01 | .03 | 0.01 | 3.42 | .001 | 0.07 |
Physical activity | .09 | 0.01 | 9.40 | < .001 | 0.18 | −.04 | 0.01 | −4.62 | < .001 | 0.09 |
Mental activity | .07 | 0.01 | 7.05 | < .001 | 0.14 | −.09 | 0.01 | −9.77 | < .001 | 0.19 |
Alcohol frequency | −.04 | 0.01 | −4.12 | < .001 | 0.08 | .10 | 0.01 | 9.28 | < .001 | 0.18 |
Smoking (no/yes) | −.03 | 0.01 | −2.85 | .004 | 0.05 | .06 | 0.01 | 5.69 | < .001 | 0.11 |
Vegetarian diet (no/yes) | .00 | 0.01 | 0.07 | .943 | 0.00 | .06 | 0.01 | 6.68 | < .001 | 0.13 |
Social rhythm irregularity | −.29 | 0.01 | −32.32 | .000 | 0.62 | .31 | 0.01 | 35.12 | < .001 | 0.68 |
Longitudinal analysis | ||||||||||
Baseline positive mental health (PMH) | .35 | 0.01 | 31.79 | < .001 | 0.61 | −.12 | 0.01 | −10.18 | < .001 | 0.20 |
Baseline mental health problems (MHP) | −.08 | 0.01 | −7.17 | < .001 | 0.14 | .23 | 0.01 | 19.36 | < .001 | 0.37 |
Gender (male/female) | .03 | 0.01 | 3.03 | .002 | 0.06 | −.12 | 0.01 | −10.18 | < .001 | 0.20 |
Age | .06 | 0.01 | 5.58 | < .001 | 0.11 | −.02 | 0.01 | −2.17 | .030 | 0.04 |
Body mass index | −.01 | 0.01 | −0.99 | .321 | 0.02 | −.01 | 0.01 | −0.83 | .406 | 0.02 |
Physical activity | .04 | 0.01 | 3.27 | .001 | 0.06 | −.01 | 0.01 | −0.91 | .365 | 0.02 |
Mental activity | .03 | 0.01 | 2.82 | .005 | 0.05 | −.04 | 0.01 | −3.74 | < .001 | 0.07 |
Alcohol frequency | .00 | 0.01 | −0.03 | .975 | 0.00 | .03 | 0.01 | 2.15 | .031 | 0.04 |
Smoking (no/yes) | .00 | 0.01 | 0.27 | .784 | 0.01 | .06 | 0.01 | 5.05 | < .001 | 0.10 |
Vegetarian diet (no/yes) | −.02 | 0.01 | −2.28 | .022 | 0.04 | .06 | 0.01 | 5.65 | < .001 | 0.11 |
Social rhythm irregularity | −.05 | 0.01 | −4.73 | < .001 | 0.09 | .03 | 0.01 | 2.66 | .008 | 0.05 |
Positive mental health
Mental health problems
Lifestyle and mental health across samples
Outcome | Positive mental health (PMH) | Mental health problems (MHP) | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Fixed effects | β | SE (β) |
t
|
p
|
d
| β | SE (β) |
t
|
p
|
d
|
Cross-sectional analysis | ||||||||||
Gender (male/female) | −.04 | 0.01 | −2.71 | .007 | 0.07 | .04 | 0.01 | 3.29 | .001 | 0.09 |
Age | .00 | 0.02 | −0.11 | .916 | 0.00 | −.05 | 0.02 | −3.19 | .001 | 0.09 |
Body mass index | −.03 | 0.02 | −2.15 | .031 | 0.06 | .06 | 0.02 | 3.83 | < .001 | 0.10 |
Physical activity | .12 | 0.01 | 8.45 | < .001 | 0.23 | −.05 | 0.01 | −3.25 | .001 | 0.09 |
Mental activity | .07 | 0.01 | 4.92 | < .001 | 0.13 | −.06 | 0.01 | −4.87 | < .001 | 0.13 |
Alcohol frequency | .00 | 0.02 | 0.03 | .974 | 0.00 | .03 | 0.02 | 2.37 | .018 | 0.06 |
Smoking (no/yes) | −.06 | 0.02 | −4.13 | < .001 | 0.11 | .10 | 0.02 | 6.43 | < .001 | 0.17 |
Vegetarian diet (no/yes) | −.03 | 0.01 | −2.31 | .021 | 0.06 | .07 | 0.01 | 6.15 | < .001 | 0.16 |
Social rhythm irregularity | −.27 | 0.01 | −20.98 | < .001 | 0.56 | .27 | 0.01 | 21.08 | < .001 | 0.56 |
Longitudinal analysis | ||||||||||
Positive mental health (PMH) | .42 | 0.02 | 19.99 | < .001 | 0.53 | −.11 | 0.02 | −5.22 | < .001 | 0.14 |
Mental health problems (MHP) | −.14 | 0.02 | −6.18 | < .001 | 0.17 | .39 | 0.02 | 17.49 | < .001 | 0.48 |
Gender | .00 | 0.02 | 0.16 | .870 | 0.00 | −.06 | 0.02 | −2.75 | .006 | 0.07 |
Age | .04 | 0.02 | 1.84 | .065 | 0.05 | −.05 | 0.02 | −2.22 | .027 | 0.06 |
Body mass index | −.04 | 0.02 | −1.81 | .070 | 0.05 | −.03 | 0.02 | −1.10 | .273 | 0.03 |
Physical activity | .04 | 0.02 | 1.97 | .048 | 0.05 | −.02 | 0.02 | −0.96 | .335 | 0.03 |
Mental activity | −.01 | 0.02 | −0.49 | .624 | 0.01 | −.01 | 0.02 | −0.24 | .808 | 0.01 |
Alcohol frequency | −.04 | 0.02 | −1.79 | .074 | 0.05 | .03 | 0.02 | 1.49 | .136 | 0.04 |
Smoking (no/yes) | .02 | 0.02 | 0.83 | .406 | 0.02 | .09 | 0.02 | 3.61 | < .001 | 0.10 |
Vegetarian diet (no/yes) | .00 | 0.02 | 0.24 | .810 | 0.01 | .03 | 0.02 | 1.63 | .103 | 0.04 |
Social rhythm irregularity | −.05 | 0.02 | −2.44 | .015 | 0.07 | .06 | 0.02 | 2.81 | .005 | 0.08 |