Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Social Networks of HIV Positive Gay Men: Their Role and Importance in HIV Prevention

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Understanding Prevention for HIV Positive Gay Men

Abstract

HIV positive gay men are embedded within diverse and rich social networks consisting of family, friends, romantic partners, medical providers, HIV negative gay men, persons living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHA), and others. These social connections and interactions play a significant role in numerous aspects of their physical and mental health. The unique set of issues faced by HIV positive gay men exist in a larger social context. The individuals with whom a person interacts can have a large impact on how HIV positive gay men understand and cope with these issues. As such, expanding scientific frameworks to include the social network is critical in designing more effective primary and secondary prevention interventions. In this chapter, we aim to (1) discuss the state of the evidence on social networks and health for HIV positive gay men and HIV positive men who have sex with men (MSM), (2) provide an overview of network-oriented intervention approaches that have been used with HIV positive gay men and MSM, and (3) conclude with recommendations for future research and practice.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Adimora, A. A., & Schoenbach, V. J. (2005). Social context, sexual networks, and racial disparities in rates of sexually transmitted infections. The Journal of Infectious Diseases, 191(s1), S115–S122.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Aral, S. O., Hughes, J. P., Stoner, B., Whittington, W., Handsfield, H. H., Anderson, R. M., & Holmes, K. K. (1999). Sexual mixing patterns in the spread of gonococcal and chlamydial infections. American Journal of Public Health, 89(6), 825–833.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ayala, G., Bingham, T., Kim, J., Wheeler, D. P., & Millett, G. A. (2012). Modeling the impact of social discrimination and financial hardship on the sexual risk of HIV among Latino and black men who have sex with men. American Journal of Public Health, 102(S2), S242–S249.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bairan, A., Taylor, G. A. J., Blake, B. J., Akers, T., Sowell, R., & Mendiola, R., Jr. (2007). A model of HIV disclosure: Disclosure and types of social relationships. Journal of the American Academy of Nurse Practitioners, 19(5), 242–250.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bakeman, R., Peterson, J. L., & Community Intervention Trial for Youth Study Team. (2007). Do beliefs about HIV treatments affect peer norms and risky sexual behaviour among African-American men who have sex with men? International Journal of STD & AIDS, 18(2), 105–108.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berry, M., Raymond, H. F., & McFarland, W. (2007). Same race and older partner selection may explain higher HIV prevalence among black men who have sex with men. AIDS (London, England), 21(17), 2349–2350.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bingham, T. A., Harawa, N. T., Johnson, D. F., Secura, G. M., MacKellar, D. A., & Valleroy, L. A. (2003). The effect of partner characteristics on HIV infection among African American men who have sex with men in the young men’s survey, Los Angeles, 1999–2000. AIDS Education and Prevention: Official Publication of the International Society for AIDS Education, 15(1_supplement), 39–52.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bingham, T. A., Harawa, N. T., & Williams, J. K. (2013). Gender role conflict among African American men who have sex with men and women: Associations with mental health and sexual risk and disclosure behaviors. American Journal of Public Health, 103(1), 127–133.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bohl, D. D., Raymond, H. F., Arnold, M., & McFarland, W. (2009). Concurrent sexual partnerships and racial disparities in HIV infection among men who have sex with men. Sexually Transmitted Infections, 85(5), 367–369.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bourne, C., Knight, V., Guy, R., Wand, H., Lu, H., & McNulty, A. (2011). Short message service reminder intervention doubles sexually transmitted infection/HIV re-testing rates among men who have sex with men. Sexually Transmitted Infections, 87(3), 229–231.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bowen, A. M., Horvath, K., & Williams, M. L. (2007). A randomized control trial of internet-delivered HIV prevention targeting rural MSM. Health Education Research, 22(1), 120–127.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Britton, P. J., Zarski, J. J., & Hobfoll, S. E. (1993). Psychological distress and the role of significant others in a population of gay/bisexual men in the era of HIV. AIDS Care, 5(1), 43–54.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Broadhead, R. S., Heckathorn, D. D., Altice, F. L., van Hulst, Y., Carbone, M., Friedland, G. H., & Selwyn, P. A. (2002). Increasing drug users’ adherence to HIV treatment: Results of a peer-driven intervention feasibility study. Social Science & Medicine (1982), 55(2), 235–246.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bull, S. S., McFarlane, M., & King, D. (2001). Barriers to STD/HIV prevention on the internet. Health Education Research, 16(6), 661–670.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Buseh, A. G., Stevens, P. E., McManus, P., Addison, R. J., Morgan, S., & Millon-Underwood, S. (2006). Challenges and opportunities for HIV prevention and care: Insights from focus groups of HIV-infected African American men. The Journal of the Association of Nurses in AIDS Care: JANAC, 17(4), 3–15.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carpiano, R. M., Kelly, B. C., Easterbrook, A., & Parsons, J. T. (2011). Community and drug use among gay men: The role of neighborhoods and networks. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 52(1), 74–90.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2003). From the centers for disease control and prevention. HIV/STD risks in young men who have sex with men who do not disclose their sexual orientation--six U.S. cities, 1994–2000. JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association, 289(8), 975–977.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Christakis, N. A., & Fowler, J. H. (2008). The collective dynamics of smoking in a large social network. The New England Journal of Medicine, 358(21), 2249–2258.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Cornelius, J. B., & St Lawrence, J. S. (2009). Receptivity of African American adolescents to an HIV-prevention curriculum enhanced by text messaging. Journal for Specialists in Pediatric Nursing: JSPN, 14(2), 123–131.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Costenbader, E. C., Astone, N. M., & Latkin, C. A. (2006). The dynamics of injection drug users’ personal networks and HIV risk behaviors. Addiction (Abingdon, England), 101(7), 1003–1013.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davey-Rothwell, M. A., Tobin, K., Yang, C., Sun, C. J., & Latkin, C. A. (2011). Results of a randomized controlled trial of a peer mentor HIV/STI prevention intervention for women over an 18 month follow-up. AIDS and Behavior, 15(8), 1654–1663.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Doherty, I. A., Schoenbach, V. J., & Adimora, A. A. (2009). Condom use and duration of concurrent partnerships among men in the United States. Sexually Transmitted Diseases, 36(5), 265–272.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Eaton, L. A., Kalichman, S. C., & Cherry, C. (2010). Sexual partner selection and HIV risk reduction among black and white men who have sex with men. American Journal of Public Health, 100(3), 503–509.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Effective interventions: HIV prevention that works. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.effectiveinterventions.org/en/Home.aspx.

  • El-Bassel, N., Gilbert, L., Witte, S., Wu, E., Hunt, T., & Remien, R. H. (2010). Couple-based HIV prevention in the United States: Advantages, gaps, and future directions. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 55(Suppl 2), S98–S101.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • El-Bassel, N., Jemmott, J. B., Landis, J. R., Pequegnat, W., Wingood, G. M., Wyatt, G. E., … for the NIMH Multisite HIV/STD Prevention Trial for African American Couples Group. (2010). National institute of mental health multisite eban HIV/STD prevention intervention for African American HIV serodiscordant couples: A cluster randomized trial. Archives of Internal Medicine, 170(17), 1594–1601.

    Google Scholar 

  • Forrest, D. W., Metsch, L. R., LaLota, M., Cardenas, G., Beck, D. W., & Jeanty, Y. (2010). Crystal methamphetamine use and sexual risk behaviors among HIV-positive and HIV-negative men who have sex with men in south Florida. Journal of Urban Health: Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine, 87(3), 480–485.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Friedman, S. R., & Aral, S. (2001). Social networks, risk-potential networks, health, and disease. Journal of Urban Health: Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine, 78(3), 411–418.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Friedman, S. R., Curtis, R., Neaigus, A., Jose, B., & Des Jarlais, D. C. (1999). Social networks, drug injectors’ lives, and HIV/AIDS. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Friedman, S. R., Des Jarlais, D. C., Sotheran, J. L., Garber, J., Cohen, H., & Smith, D. (1987). AIDS and self-organization among intravenous drug users. The International Journal of the Addictions, 22(3), 201–219.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frye, V., Nandi, V., Egan, J. E., Cerda, M., Rundle, A., Quinn, J. W., … Koblin, B. (2017). Associations among neighborhood characteristics and sexual risk behavior among black and white MSM living in a major urban area. AIDS and Behavior, 21, 870–890.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gardenier, D., Andrews, C. M., Thomas, D. C., Bookhardt-Murray, L. J., & Fitzpatrick, J. J. (2010). Social support and adherence: Differences among clients in an AIDS day health care program. The Journal of the Association of Nurses in AIDS Care: JANAC, 21(1), 75–85.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • George, S., Garth, B., Wohl, A. R., Galvan, F. H., Garland, W., & Myers, H. F. (2009). Sources and types of social support that influence engagement in HIV care among Latinos and African Americans. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved, 20(4), 1012–1035.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hall, V. P. (1999). The relationship between social support and health in gay men with HIV/AIDS: An integrative review. The Journal of the Association of Nurses in AIDS Care: JANAC, 10(3), 74–86.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harawa, N. T., McCuller, W. J., Chavers, C., & Janson, M. (2013). HIV risk behaviors among black/African American and Hispanic/Latina female partners of men who have sex with men and women. AIDS and Behavior, 17(3), 848–855.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Harawa, N. T., Williams, J. K., Ramamurthi, H. C., Manago, C., Avina, S., & Jones, M. (2008). Sexual behavior, sexual identity, and substance abuse among low-income bisexual and non-gay-identifying African American men who have sex with men. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 37(5), 748–762.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hart, G., Fitzpatrick, R., McLean, J., Dawson, J., & Boulton, M. (1990). Gay men, social support and HIV disease: A study of social integration in the gay community. AIDS Care, 2(2), 163–170.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hart, G. J., Williamson, L. M., & Flowers, P. (2004). Good in parts: The gay men’s task force in Glasgow - a response to Kelly. AIDS Care - Psychological and Socio-Medical Aspects of AIDS/HIV, 16(2), 159–165.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hart, T. A., Wolitski, R. J., Purcell, D. W., Parsons, J. T., Gomez, C. A., & Seropositive Urban Men’s Study Team. (2005). Partner awareness of the serostatus of HIV-seropositive men who have sex with men: Impact on unprotected sexual behavior. AIDS and Behavior, 9(2), 155–166.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hays, R. B., Catania, J. A., McKusick, L., & Coates, T. J. (1990). Help-seeking for AIDS-related concerns: A comparison of gay men with various HIV diagnoses. American Journal of Community Psychology, 18(5), 743–755.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hays, R. B., Magee, R. H., & Chauncey, S. (1994). Identifying helpful and unhelpful behaviours of loved ones: The PWA’s perspective. AIDS Care, 6(4), 379–392.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hickson, D. A., Mena, L. A., Wilton, L., Tieu, V. H., Koblin, B. A., Latkin, C., … Mayer, K. H. (2017). Sexual networks, dyadic characteristics, and HIV acquisition and transmission behaviors among black men who have sex with men in 6 US cities. American Journal of Epidemiology, 185, 786–800.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hightow-Weidman, L. B., Fowler, B., Kibe, J., McCoy, R., Pike, E., Calabria, M., & Adimora, A. (2011). HealthMpowerment.Org: Development of a theory-based HIV/STI website for young black MSM. AIDS Education and Prevention:Official Publication of the International Society for AIDS Education, 23(1), 1–12.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Holloway, I. W., Tan, D., Dunlap, S. L., Palmer, L., Beougher, S., & Cederbaum, J. A. (2017). Network support, technology use, depression, and ART adherence among HIV-positive MSM of color. AIDS Care. 29(9):1153-1161. [Epub ahead of print].

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Horvath, K. J., Michael Oakes, J., Simon Rosser, B. R., Danilenko, G., Vezina, H., Rivet Amico, K., … Simoni, J. (2013). Feasibility, acceptability and preliminary efficacy of an online peer-to-peer social support ART adherence intervention. AIDS and Behavior, 17(6), 2031–2044.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ingram, K. M., Jones, D. A., Fass, R. J., Neidig, J. L., & Song, Y. S. (1999). Social support and unsupportive social interactions: Their association with depression among people living with HIV. AIDS Care - Psychological and Socio-Medical Aspects of AIDS/HIV, 11(3), 313–329.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jaganath, D., Gill, H. K., Cohen, A. C., & Young, S. D. (2012). Harnessing online peer education (HOPE): Integrating C-POL and social media to train peer leaders in HIV prevention. AIDS Care, 24(5), 593–600.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jennings, J. M., Taylor, R., Iannacchione, V. G., Rogers, S. M., Chung, S. E., Huettner, S., & Ellen, J. M. (2010). The available pool of sex partners and risk for a current bacterial sexually transmitted infection. Annals of Epidemiology, 20(7), 532–538.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Jimenez, A. D. (2003). Triple jeopardy: Targeting older men of color who have sex with men. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes (1999), 33(Sup 2), S222–S225.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jones, K. T., Gray, P., Whiteside, Y. O., Wang, T., Bost, D., Dunbar, E., … Johnson, W. D. (2008). Evaluation of an HIV prevention intervention adapted for black men who have sex with men. American Journal of Public Health, 98(6), 1043–1050.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Juzang, I., Fortune, T., Black, S., Wright, E., & Bull, S. (2011). A pilot programme using mobile phones for HIV prevention. Journal of Telemedicine and Telecare, 17(3), 150–153.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kalichman, S. C., DiMarco, M., Austin, J., Luke, W., & DiFonzo, K. (2003). Stress, social support, and HIV-status disclosure to family and friends among HIV-positive men and women. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 26(4), 315–332.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kegeles, S. M., Hays, R. B., & Coates, T. J. (1996). The Mpowerment project: A community-level HIV prevention intervention for young gay men. American Journal of Public Health, 86(8_Pt_1), 1129–1136.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kelly, J. A. (1999). Community-level interventions are needed to prevent new HIV infections. American Journal of Public Health, 89(3), 299–301.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kelly, J. A. (2004). Popular opinion leaders and HIV prevention peer education: Resolving discrepant findings, and implications for the development of effective community programmes. AIDS Care, 16(2), 139–150.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kelly, J. A., St Lawrence, J. S., Diaz, Y. E., Stevenson, L. Y., Hauth, A. C., Brasfield, T. L., … Andrew, M. E. (1991). HIV risk behavior reduction following intervention with key opinion leaders of population: An experimental analysis. American Journal of Public Health, 81(2), 168–171.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kelly, J. A., St Lawrence, J. S., Stevenson, L. Y., Hauth, A. C., Kalichman, S. C., Diaz, Y. E., … Morgan, M. G. (1992). Community AIDS/HIV risk reduction: The effects of endorsements by popular people in three cities. American Journal of Public Health, 82(11), 1483–1489.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kimberly, J. A., & Serovich, J. M. (1999). The role of family and friend social support in reducing risk behaviors among HIV-positive gay men. AIDS Education and Prevention, 11(6), 465–475.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Knowlton, A. R., Yang, C., Bohnert, A., Wissow, L., Chander, G., & Arnsten, J. A. (2011). Informal care and reciprocity of support are associated with HAART adherence among men in Baltimore, MD, USA. AIDS and Behavior, 15(7), 1429–1436.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kraft, J. M., Beeker, C., Stokes, J. P., & Peterson, J. L. (2000). Finding the “community” in community-level HIV/AIDS interventions: Formative research with young African American men who have sex with men. Health Education & Behavior: The Official Publication of the Society for Public Health Education, 27(4), 430–441.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Latkin, C., Yang, C., Tobin, K., Roebuck, G., Spikes, P., & Patterson, J. (2012). Social network predictors of disclosure of MSM behavior and HIV-positive serostatus among African American MSM in Baltimore, Maryland. AIDS and Behavior, 16(3), 535–542.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Latkin, C. A., & Knowlton, A. R. (2005). Micro-social structural approaches to HIV prevention: A social ecological perspective. AIDS Care, 17(Suppl 1), S102–S113.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Latkin, C. A., Mandell, W., & Vlahov, D. (1996). The relationship between risk networks’ patterns of crack cocaine and alcohol consumption and HIV-related sexual behaviors among adult injection drug users: A prospective study. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 42(3), 175–181.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Latkin, C. A., Sherman, S., & Knowlton, A. (2003). HIV prevention among drug users: Outcome of a network-oriented peer outreach intervention. Health Psychology:Official Journal of the Division of Health Psychology, American Psychological Association, 22(4), 332–339.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Latkin, C. A., Van Tieu, H., Fields, S., Hanscom, B. S., Connor, M., Hascom, B., … Koblin, B. A. (2017). Social network factors as correlates and predictors of high depressive symptoms among black men who have sex with men in HPTN 061. AIDS and Behavior, 21, 113–1170.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Latkin, C. A., Yang, C., Tobin, K., Penniman, T., Patterson, J., & Spikes, P. (2011). Differences in the social networks of African American men who have sex with men only and those who have sex with men and women. American Journal of Public Health, 101(10), e18–e23.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Laumann, E. O., & Youm, Y. (1999). Racial/ethnic group differences in the prevalence of sexually transmitted diseases in the United States: A network explanation. Sexually Transmitted Diseases, 26(5), 250–261.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Levine, D., McCright, J., Dobkin, L., Woodruff, A. J., & Klausner, J. D. (2008). SEXINFO: A sexual health text messaging service for San Francisco youth. American Journal of Public Health, 98(3), 393–395.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lieb, S., Prejean, J., Thompson, D. R., Fallon, S. J., Cooper, H., Gates, G. J., … Malow, R. M. (2011). HIV prevalence rates among men who have sex with men in the southern United States: Population-based estimates by race/ethnicity. AIDS and Behavior, 15(3), 596–606.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Magnus, M., Kuo, I., Phillips, G., Shelley, K., Rawls, A., Montanez, L., … Greenberg, A. E. (2010). Elevated HIV prevalence despite lower rates of sexual risk behaviors among black men in the District of Columbia who have sex with men. AIDS Patient Care and STDs, 24(10), 615–622.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Mansergh, G., Marks, G., & Simoni, J. M. (1995). Self-disclosure of HIV infection among men who vary in time since seropositive diagnosis and symptomatic status. AIDS, 9(6), 639–644.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marks, G., Bundek, N. I., Richardson, J. L., Ruiz, M. S., Maldonado, N., & Mason, H. R. (1992). Self-disclosure of HIV infection: Preliminary results from a sample of Hispanic men. Health Psychology: Official Journal of the Division of Health Psychology, American Psychological Association, 11(5), 300–306.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McConnell, J. J., Bragg, L., Shiboski, S., & Grant, R. M. (2010). Sexual seroadaptation: Lessons for prevention and sex research from a cohort of HIV-positive men who have sex with men. PLoS One, 5(1), e8831.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McFarland, W., Chen, Y. H., Raymond, H. F., Nguyen, B., Colfax, G., Mehrtens, J., … Truong, H. M. (2011). HIV seroadaptation among individuals, within sexual dyads, and by sexual episodes, men who have sex with men, San Francisco, 2008. AIDS Care, 23(3), 261–268.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, R. L., Klotz, D., & Eckholdt, H. M. (1998). HIV prevention with male prostitutes and patrons of hustler bars: Replication of an HIV preventive intervention. American Journal of Community Psychology, 26(1), 97–131.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Millett, G. A., Flores, S. A., Peterson, J. L., & Bakeman, R. (2007). Explaining disparities in HIV infection among black and white men who have sex with men: A meta-analysis of HIV risk behaviors. AIDS (London, England), 21(15), 2083–2091.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Murphy, R. D., Gorbach, P. M., Weiss, R. E., Hucks-Ortiz, C., & Shoptaw, S. J. (2013). Seroadaptation in a sample of very poor Los Angeles area men who have sex with men. AIDS and Behavior, 17(5), 1862–1872.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Neighbors, C., Lee, C. M., Lewis, M. A., Fossos, N., & Larimer, M. E. (2007). Are social norms the best predictor of outcomes among heavy-drinking college students? Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 68(4), 556–565.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Noar, S. M. (2011). Computer technology-based interventions in HIV prevention: State of the evidence and future directions for research. AIDS Care, 23(5), 525–533.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Operario, D., Smith, C. D., Arnold, E., & Kegeles, S. (2010). The bruthas project: Evaluation of a community-based HIV prevention intervention for African American men who have sex with men and women. AIDS Education and Prevention: Official Publication of the International Society for AIDS Education, 22(1), 37–48.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parsons, J. T., Halkitis, P. N., Wolitski, R. J., Gomez, C. A., & Seropositive Urban Men’s Study Team. (2003). Correlates of sexual risk behaviors among HIV-positive men who have sex with men. AIDS Education and Prevention: Official Publication of the International Society for AIDS Education, 15(5), 383–400.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Persson, L., Ostergren, P. O., Hanson, B. S., Lindgren, A., & Naucler, A. (2002). Social network, social support and the rate of decline of CD4 lymphocytes in asymptomatic HIV-positive homosexual men. Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, 30(3), 184–190.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Peterson, J. L., Bakeman, R., Blackshear, J. H., Jr., & Stokes, J. P. (2003). Perceptions of condom use among African American men who have sex with men. Culture, Health and Sexuality, 5(5), 409–424.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peterson, J. L., & Jones, K. T. (2009). HIV prevention for black men who have sex with men in the United States. American Journal of Public Health, 99(6), 976–980.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Peterson, J. L., Rintamaki, L. S., Brashers, D. E., Goldsmith, D. J., & Neidig, J. L. (2012). The forms and functions of peer social support for people living with HIV. The Journal of the Association of Nurses in AIDS Care: JANAC, 23(4), 294–305.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Peterson, J. L., Rothenberg, R., Kraft, J. M., Beeker, C., & Trotter, R. (2009). Perceived condom norms and HIV risks among social and sexual networks of young African American men who have sex with men. Health Education Research, 24(1), 119–127.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Raymond, H. F., & McFarland, W. (2009). Racial mixing and HIV risk among men who have sex with men. AIDS and Behavior, 13(4), 630–637. doi:10.1007/s10461-009-9574-6

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Real, K., & Rimal, R. N. (2007). Friends talk to friends about drinking: Exploring the role of peer communication in the theory of normative social behavior. Health Communication, 22(2), 169–180.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reisner, S. L., Mimiaga, M. J., Bland, S., Skeer, M., Cranston, K., Isenberg, D., … Mayer, K. H. (2010). Problematic alcohol use and HIV risk among black men who have sex with men in Massachusetts. AIDS Care, 22(5), 577–587.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rice, E., Tulbert, E., Cederbaum, J., Barman Adhikari, A., & Milburn, N. G. (2012). Mobilizing homeless youth for HIV prevention: A social network analysis of the acceptability of a face-to-face and online social networking intervention. Health Education Research, 27(2), 226–236.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenfeld, D., Bartlam, B., & Smith, R. D. (2012). Out of the closet and into the trenches: Gay male baby boomers, aging, and HIV/AIDS. The Gerontologist, 52(2), 255–264.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenquist, J. N., Murabito, J., Fowler, J. H., & Christakis, N. A. (2010). The spread of alcohol consumption behavior in a large social network. Annals of Internal Medicine, 152(7), 426–33, W141., W141.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Serovich, J. M., Esbensen, A. J., & Mason, T. L. (2007). Disclosure of positive HIV serostatus by men who have sex with men to family and friends over time. AIDS Patient Care and STDs, 21(7), 492–500.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Serovich, J. M., Mason, T. L., Bautista, D., & Toviessi, P. (2006). Gay men’s report of regret of HIV disclosure to family, friends, and sex partners. AIDS Education and Prevention: Official Publication of the International Society for AIDS Education, 18(2), 132–138.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shippy, R. A., & Karpiak, S. E. (2005). The aging HIV/AIDS population: Fragile social networks. Aging & Mental Health, 9(3), 246–254.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sifakis, F., Hylton, J. B., Flynn, C., Solomon, L., Mackellar, D. A., Valleroy, L. A., & Celentano, D. D. (2007). Racial disparities in HIV incidence among young men who have sex with men: The Baltimore young men’s survey. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes (1999), 46(3), 343–348.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sifakis, F., Hylton, J. B., Flynn, C., Solomon, L., MacKellar, D. A., Valleroy, L. A., & Celentano, D. D. (2010). Prevalence of HIV infection and prior HIV testing among young men who have sex with men. The Baltimore young men’s survey. AIDS and Behavior, 14(4), 904–912.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Simoni, J. M., Demas, P., Mason, H. R. C., Drossman, J. A., & Davis, M. L. (2000). HIV disclosure among women of African descent: Associations with coping, social support, and psychological adaptation. AIDS and Behavior, 4(2), 147–158.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Takahashi, L. M., & Magalong, M. G. (2008). Disruptive social capital: (un)healthy socio-spatial interactions among Filipino men living with HIV/AIDS. Health & Place, 14(2), 182–197.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Teunissen, H. A., Spijkerman, R., Prinstein, M. J., Cohen, G. L., Engels, R. C. M. E., & Scholte, R. H. J. (2012). Adolescents’ conformity to their peers’ pro-alcohol and anti-alcohol norms: The power of popularity. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 36(7), 1257–1267.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tieu, H. V., Nandi, V., Hoover, D. R., Lucy, D., Stewart, K., Frye, V. … NYC M2M Study Team. (2016). Do sexual networks of men who have sex with men in New York City differ by race/ethnicity? AIDS Patient Care and STDs, 30, 39–47.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tieu, H. V., Spikes, P., Patterson, J., Bonner, S., Egan, J. E., Goodman, K., … Koblin, B. A. (2012). Sociodemographic and risk behavior characteristics associated with unprotected sex with women among black men who have sex with men and women in New York City. AIDS Care, 24(9), 1111–1119.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Tobin, K. E., Cutchin, M., Latkin, C. A., & Takahashi, L. M. (2013). Social geographies of African American men who have sex with men (MSM): A qualitative exploration of the social, spatial and temporal context of HIV risk in Baltimore, Maryland. Health & Place, 22C, 1–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tobin, K. E., German, D., Spikes, P., Patterson, J., & Latkin, C. (2011). A comparison of the social and sexual networks of crack-using and non-crack using African American men who have sex with men. Journal of Urban Health, 88(6), 1052–1062.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Tobin, K. E., Kuramoto, S. J., Davey-Rothwell, M. A., & Latkin, C. A. (2011). The STEP into action study: A peer-based, personal risk network-focused HIV prevention intervention with injection drug users in Baltimore, Maryland. Addiction (Abingdon, England), 106(2), 366–375.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tobin, K. E., Kuramoto, S. J., German, D., Fields, E., Spikes, P., Patterson, J., & Latkin, C. (2013). Unity in diversity: Results of a randomized clinical culturally tailored pilot HIV prevention intervention trial in Baltimore, MD, for African American men who have sex with men. Health Education and Behavior, 40(3), 286–295.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tucker, J. S., Hu, J., Golinelli, D., Kennedy, D. P., Green, H. D., Jr., & Wenzel, S. L. (2012). Social network and individual correlates of sexual risk behavior among homeless young men who have sex with men. Journal of Adolescent Health, 51(4), 386–392.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Waddell, E. N., & Messeri, P. A. (2006). Social support, disclosure, and use of antiretroviral therapy. AIDS and Behavior, 10(3), 263–272.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wheeler, D. P. (2006). Exploring HIV prevention needs for nongay-identified black and African American men who have sex with men: A qualitative exploration. Sexually Transmitted Diseases, 33(Supplement), S11–S16.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wheeler, D. P., Lauby, J. L., Liu, K. L., Van Sluytman, L. G., & Murrill, C. (2008). A comparative analysis of sexual risk characteristics of black men who have sex with men or with men and women. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 37(5), 697–707.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • White, L., & Cant, B. (2003). Social networks, social support, health and HIV-positive gay men. Health & Social Care in the Community, 11(4), 329–334.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, J. K., Ramamurthi, H. C., Manago, C., & Harawa, N. T. (2009). Learning from successful interventions: A culturally congruent HIV risk-reduction intervention for African American men who have sex with men and women. American Journal of Public Health, 99(6), 1008–1012.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wilton, L., Herbst, J. H., Coury-Doniger, P., Painter, T. M., English, G., Alvarez, M. E., … Carey, J. W. (2009). Efficacy of an HIV/STI prevention intervention for black men who have sex with men: Findings from the many men, many voices (3MV) project. AIDS and Behavior, 13(3), 532–544.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wilton, R. D. (1996). Diminished worlds? The geography of everyday life with HIV/AIDS. Health & Place, 2(2), 69–83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wohl, A. R., Galvan, F. H., Myers, H. F., Garland, W., George, S., Witt, M., … Lee, M. L. (2011). Do social support, stress, disclosure and stigma influence retention in HIV care for Latino and African American men who have sex with men and women? AIDS and Behavior, 15(6), 1098–1110.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wong, C. F., Kipke, M. D., & Weiss, G. (2008). Risk factors for alcohol use, frequent use, and binge drinking among young men who have sex with men. Addictive Behaviors, 33(8), 1012–1020.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wright, E., Fortune, T., Juzang, I., & Bull, S. (2011). Text messaging for HIV prevention with young black men: Formative research and campaign development. AIDS Care, 23(5), 534–541.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zea, M. C., Reisen, C. A., Poppen, P. J., Bianchi, F. T., & Echeverry, J. J. (2005). Disclosure of HIV status and psychological well-being among Latino gay and bisexual men. AIDS and Behavior, 9(1), 15–26.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zea, M. C., Reisen, C. A., Poppen, P. J., Echeverry, J. J., & Bianchi, F. T. (2004). Disclosure of HIV-positive status to Latino gay men’s social networks. American Journal of Community Psychology, 33(1-2), 107–116.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Health, Behavior and Society, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA

    Karin E. Tobin & Carl A. Latkin

Authors
  1. Karin E. Tobin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Carl A. Latkin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Karin E. Tobin .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Human Development, College of Community and Public Affairs (CCPA), State University of New York at Binghamton, Binghamton, NY, USA

    Leo Wilton

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2017 Springer Science+Business Media LLC

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Tobin, K.E., Latkin, C.A. (2017). Social Networks of HIV Positive Gay Men: Their Role and Importance in HIV Prevention. In: Wilton, L. (eds) Understanding Prevention for HIV Positive Gay Men. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-0203-0_15

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-0203-0_15

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4419-0202-3

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4419-0203-0

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation