Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Autism: Familial aggregation and genetic implications

  • Published:
Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

A review of the current literature suggests that genetic factors play an important role in the etiology of autism. It is likely that the etiology of currently idiopathic cases of autism will be shown to be heterogeneous, just as the few known etiologies are both environmental and genetic. Moreover, we would speculate that within the group of cases shown to have genetic etiologies, more than one genetic locus will be found. Some evidence suggests that quite often it is not autism itself that is inherited but rather some genetic abnormality of language or sociability that interacts with other factors to produce autism.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • American Psychiatric Association. (1980).Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (3rd ed.). Washington D.C.: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong, M. D., Low, N. L., & Bosman, J. F. (1957). Studies on phenylketonuria, IX. Further observations on the effect of phenylalanine-restricted diet on patients with phenylketonuria.American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 5, 543–554.

    Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong, M. D., & Tyler, F. H. (1955). Studies on phenylketonuria, I. Restricted phenylalanine intake and phenylketonuria.Journal of Clinical Investigation, 34, 565–580.

    Google Scholar 

  • August, G. J., & Lockhart, L. H. (1984). Familial autism and the fragile X chromosome.Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 14, 197–204.

    Google Scholar 

  • August, G. J., Stewart, M. A., & Tsai, L. (1981). The incidence of cognitive disabilities in the siblings of autistic children.British Journal of Psychiatry, 138, 416–422.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baird, T. D., & August, G. J. (1985). Familial heterogeneity in infantile autism.Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 15, 315–321.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bartak, L., Rutter, M., & Cox, A. (1975). A comparative study of infantile autism and specific developmental receptive language disorder. I. The children.British Journal of Psychiatry, 126, 127–145.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bauman, M., & Kemper, T. L., (1985). Histoanatomic observations of the brain in early infantile autism.Neurology, 35, 866–874.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berry, H. K., Sutherland, B. S., Guest, G. M., & Umbarger, B. (1958). Chemical and clinical observations during treatment of children with phenylketonuria.Pediatrics, 21, 929–940.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bickel, H., Gerrard, J., & Hickmans, E. M. (1954). The influence of phenylalanine intake on the chemistry and behavior of a phenylketonuric child.Acta Paediatrica 43, 64–77.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bjornson, J. (1964). Behavior in phenylketonuria: Case with schizophrenia.Archives of General Psychiatry, 10, 65–70.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blainy, J. D., & Gulliford, R. (1956). Phenylalanine-restricted diets in the treatment of phenylketonuria.Archives of Disease in Childhood, 31, 452–566.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blomquist, H. K., Bohman, M., Edvinsson, S. O., Gillberg, C., Gustavson, K-H., Holmgren, C., & Wahlstrom, J. (1985). Frequency of the fragile X syndrome in infantile autism. A Swedish multicenter study.Clinical Genetics, 27, 113–117.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blomquist, H. K., Gustavson, K-H., Holmgren, G., Nordenson, I., & Palsson-Strae, U. (1983). Fragile X syndrome in mildly mentally retarded children in a Northern Swedish country. A prevalence study.Clinical Genetics, 24, 393–398.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blomquist, H. K., Gustavson, K-H., Holmgren, G., Nordenson, I., & Sweins, A. (1982). Fragile site X-chromosomes and X-linked mental retardation in severely retarded boys in a northern Swedish county. A prevalence study.Clinical Genetics, 21, 209–214.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boullin, D. J., Coleman, M., O'Brien, R. A., & Rimland, B. (1971). Laboratory predictions of infantile autism, based on 5-hydroxy-tryptamine efflux from blood platelets and their correlation with the Rimland E2 scores.Journal of Autism and Childhood Schizophrenia, 1, 63–71.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boullin, D. J., Freeman, B. J., Geller, E., Ritvo, E., Rutter, M., & Yuwiler, A. (1982). Toward the resolution of conflicting findings (Letter to the editor).Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 12, 97–98.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brondum-Nielsen, K. (1983). Diagosis of the fragile X syndrome (Martin-Bell syndrome). Clinical findings in 27 males with the fragile site at Xq28.Journal of Mental Deficiency Research, 27, 211–226.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, W. T., Jenkins, E. C., Friedman, E., Brooks, J., Wisniewski, K., Raguthu, S., & French, J. (1982). Autism is associated with the fragile X syndrome.Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 12, 303–308.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burgoine, E., & Wing, L. (1983). Identical triplets with Asperger's syndrome.British Journal of Psychiatry, 143, 261–265.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chess, S., Fernandez, P. B., & Korn, S. J. (1978). Behavioral consequences of congenital rubella.Journal of Pediatrics, 93, 699–703.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chess, S., Korn, S. J., & Fernandez, P. B. (1971).Psychiatric disorders of children with congenitial rubella. New York: Brunner/Mazel.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chick, J., Waterhouse, L., & Wolff, S. (1979). Psychological construing in schizoid children grown up.British Journal of Psychiatry, 135, 425–430.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coleman, M. (1972). Studies of the autistic syndromes. In R. Katzman (Ed.),Congential and cognitive disorders. New York: Raven Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coleman, P. D., Romano, J., Lapham, L., & Simon, W. (1985). Cell counts in cerebral cortex of an autistic patient.Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 15, 245–255.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cowie, W. A. (1951). An atypical case of phenylketonuria.Lancet, 272–273.

  • Crome, L., & Stern, J. (1972).Pathology of mental retardation (2nd ed.). Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone.

    Google Scholar 

  • Darby, J. K. (1976). Neuropathologic aspects of psychosis in children.Journal of Autism and Childhood Schizophrenia, 6, 339–352.

    Google Scholar 

  • De Arce, M., & Kearns, A. (1984). The fragile X syndrome: The patients and their chromosomes.Journal of Medical Genetics, 21, 84–91.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deykin, E. Y., & MacMahon, D. (1979). The incidence of seizures among children with autistic symptoms. American Journal of Psychiatry, 136, 1310–1312.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deykin, E. Y., & MacMahon, B. (1980). Pregnancy, delivery and neonatal complications among autistic children.American Journal of Disease of Children, 134, 860–864.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dover, G. J., Boyer, S. H., & Pembrey, M. E. (1981). F-cell production in sickle cell anemia: Regulation of genes linked to beta-hemoglobin locus.Science, 211, 1441–1444.

    Google Scholar 

  • Finegan, J., & Quadrington, B. (1979). Pre-, peri-, and neonatal factors and infantile autism.Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 20, 119–128.

    Google Scholar 

  • Folling, A. (1934). Phenylpyruvic acid as a metabolic anomaly in connection with imbecility.Zeitschrift für Physiologische Chemie, 224, 169–176.

    Google Scholar 

  • Folstein, S., & Rutter, M. (1977). Infantile autism: A genetic study of 21 twin pairs.Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 18, 297–231.

    Google Scholar 

  • Friedman, E. (1969). The “autistic syndrome” and phenylketonuria.Schizophrenia, 1, 249–261.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fryns, J. P. (1984). The fragile X syndrome: A study of 83 families.Clinical Genetics, 26, 497–528.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gillberg, C. (1983). Identical triplets with infantile autism and the fragile X syndrome.British Journal of Psychiatry, 143, 256–260.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gillberg, C., & Forsell, C. (1984). Childhood psychosis and neurofibromatosis—More than a coincidence?Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 14, 1–8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gillberg, C., & Gillberg, I. C. (1983). Infantile autism: A total population study of nonoptimal, pre-, peri, and neonatal conditions.Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 13, 153–166.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gillberg, C., Trygstad, O., & Foss, I. (1982). Childhood psychosis and urinary excretion of peptides and protein-associated peptide complexes.Journal of Autism, and Developmental Disorders, 12, 229–241.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldfine, P. E., McPherson, P. M., Heath, G. A., Hardesty, V. A., Beauregard, L. J., & Gordon, S. (1985). Association of fragile X syndrome with autism.American Journal of Psychiatry, 142, 108–110.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gottesman, I. I., & Shields, J. (1982). Schizophrenia: The epigenetic puzzle. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gusella, J. F., Tanzi, R. E., Anderson, M. A., Hobbs, W., Gibbson, K., Raschtchian, R., Gilliam, T. C., Wallace, M. R., Wexler, N. S., & Conneally, P. M. (1984). DNA markers for nervous system diseases.Science, 225, 1320–1326.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hangerman, R. J., & McBogg, P. M. (1983).The fragile X syndrome, diagnosis, Biochemistry, and intervention. Dillon, Colorado: Spectra.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hanson, D. R., & Gottesman, I. I. (1976). The genetics, if any, of infantile autism and childhood schizophrenia.Journal of Austism and Childhood Schizophrenia, 6, 209–234.

    Google Scholar 

  • Herbst, D. S., & Miller, J. R. (1980). Non-specific X-linked mental retardation. II. The frequency in British Columbia.American Journal of Medical Genetics, 7, 461–469.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hunt, A. (1983a). Tuberous sclerosis: A survey of 97 cases. I: Seizures, pertussis immunization handicap.Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 25, 346–347.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hunt, A. (1983b). Tuberous sclerosis: A survey of 96 cases. II: Physical findings.Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 25, 350–352.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hunt, A. (1983c). Tuberous sclerosis: A survey of 96 cases. III: Family aspects.Developmental medicine and Child Neurology, 25, 353–357.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jaeken, J., & Van den Berghe, G. V. (1984). An infantile autistic syndrome characterised by the presence of succinylpurines in body fluids.Lancet, 1058–1061.

  • Jorgensen, O. S., Nielsen, K. B., Isager, T., & Mouridsen, S. E. (1984). Fragile X Chromosome child psychiatric patients with disturbances of language and social relationships.Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 70, 510–514.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kanner, L. (1943). Autistic disturbances of affective contact.Nervous Child 2 217–250.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kerbeshian, J., Burd, L., & Martsoff, J. (1984). A family with fragile X syndrome.Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 172, 549–551.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kidd, K. K., & Pauls, D. L. (1982). Genetic hypotheses for Tourette syndrome. In T. N. Chase & A. J. Friedhoff (Ed.), Gilles de la Tourette syndrome,Advances in Neurology, 35, 243–249.

  • Knoll, J. H., Chudley, A. E., & Gerrard, J. W. (1984). Fragile (X) X-linked mental retardation. II. Frequency and replication pattern of fragile (X) (q28) in heterozygotes.American Journal of Human Genetics, 36, 640–645.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kolvin, I. (1971). Psychoses in childhood—A comparative study. In M. Rutter (Ed.),Infantile autism: Concepts, characteristics and treatment. London: Churchill Livingstone.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kotsopoulos, S., & Kutty, K. M. (1979). Histidinemia and infantile autism.Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 9, 55–60.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kratter, F. E. (1959). The physiognomic, psychometric, behavioral and neurological aspects of phenylketonuria.Journal of Mental Science, 105, 421–427.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kuperman, S., Beeghly, J. H. L., Burns, T. L., & Tsai, L. Y. (1985). Serotonin relationships of autistic probands and their first-degree relatives.Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 24, 186–190.

    Google Scholar 

  • Laird, G. J., & Schimke, R. N. (Eds.) (1979).Clinical genetics: A source book for Physicians. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Largo, R. H., & Schinzel, A. (1985). Developmental and behavioural disturbances in 13 boys with fragile X syndrome.European Journal of Pediatrics, 143, 269–275.

    Google Scholar 

  • LeCouteur, A., Trygstad, O., Howlin, P., Robertson, S., & Rutter, M. (1986).Urinary peptide findings in autism: a non-replication. Manuscript in preparation.

  • Leland, H. (1957). Some psychological characteristics of phenylketonuria.Psychological Reports, 3, 373–376.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levitas, A., Hagerman, R. J., Braden, M., Rimland, B., McBogg, P., & Matteus, I. (1983). Autism and the fragile X syndrome.Journal of Developmental and Behavioral, Pediatrics, 3, 151–158.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewis, E. (1959). The development of concepts in a girl after dietary treatment for phenylketonuria.British Journal of Medical Psychology, 32, 282–287.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lord, C., & Schopler, E. (1987). Neurobiological implications of sex differences in autism. In E. Schopler & G. B. Mesibov (Eds.)Neurobiological issues in autism (pp. 191–211). New York: Plenum Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lord, C., Schopler, E., & Revicki, D. (1982). Sex differences in autism.Journal of Austism and Developmental Disorders, 12, 317–330.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lotter, V. (1966). Epidemiology of autistic conditions in young children. I. Prevalence.Social Psychiatry, 1, 124–137.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lotter, V. (1967). Epidemiology of autistic conditions in young children. II. Some characteristics of the parents and children.Social Psychiatry, 1, 163–173.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lubs, H. A. (1969). A marker X chromosome.American Journal of Human Genetics, 21, 231.

    Google Scholar 

  • Martin, J. P., & Bell, J. (1943). A pedigree of mental defect showing sex-linkage.Journal of Neurology and Psychiatry, 6, 154–157.

    Google Scholar 

  • McGillivray, B. C., Dill, E. J., Sandercock, J., Herbst, D. S., & Tischler, B. (1984). Infantile autism — An occasional feature of X-linked mental retardation.American Journal of Human Genetics, 36.

  • McKusick, V. A. (Ed.) (1969).Human genetics. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • McKusick, V. A. (1983).Mendelian inheritance in man. Catalogs of autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive, and X-linked phenotypes (6th ed.). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meryash, L., Szymanski, L. S., & Gerald, P. S. (1982). Infantile autism associated with the fragile X syndrome.Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 12, 295–301.

    Google Scholar 

  • Minton, J., Campbell, M., Green, W., Jennings, S., & Samit, C. (1982). Cognitive assessment of siblings of autistic children.Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 213, 256–261.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mittler, P. (1971).The study of twins. Harmondsworth: Penguin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pueschel, S. F., Herman, R., & Groden, G. (1985). Brief report: Screening children with autism for fragile X syndrome and phenylketonuria.Journal of Autism, and Developmental Disorders, 15, 335–343.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richardson, S. A., Koller, H., Katz, M., & McLaren, J. (1980). Seizures and epilepsy in a mentally retarded population over the first 22 years of life.Applied Research in Mental Retardation 1, 123–138.

    Google Scholar 

  • Riikonen, R., & Amnell, G. (1981). Psychiatric disorders in children with earlier infantile spasms.Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 23, 747–760.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ritvo, E. R., Freeman, B. J., Mason-Brothers, A., Mo, A., & Ritvo, A. M. (1985). Concordance for the syndrome of autism in 40 pairs of afflicted twins.American Journal of Psychiatry 142, 74–77.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ritvo, E. R., Spence, M. A., Freeman, B. J., Mason-Brothers, A., Mo, A., & Marazita, M. L. (1985). Evidence for autosomal recessive inheritance in 46 families with multiple incidences of autism.American Journal of psychiatry 142, 187–192.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenberg, R. N., & Pettegrew, J. D. (1980). Genetic disease of the nervous system. In J. M. Dietschy & R. N. Rosenberg (Eds.),The science of clinical medicine, Neurology, 5, 165–242. New York: Grune and Stratton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rutter, M. (1967). Psychotic disorders in early childhood. In A. Coppen & A. Walk (Eds.),British Journal of Psychiatry, Special publication No. 1, Ashford, Kent: Headley Bros.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rutter, M. (1970). Autistic children: Infancy to adulthood.Seminars in Psychiatry, 2, 435–450.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rutter, M. (1974). The development of infantile autism.Psychology Medicine, 4, 147–163.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rutter, M. (1978). Serotonin, platelets and autism (Editorial).British Medical Journal, 1, 1651–1652.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rutter, M. (1979). Language, cognition and autism. In R. Katzman (Ed.),Cogenital and acquired cognitive disorders. New York: Raven Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rutter, M. (1983). Cognitive deficits in the pathogenesis of autism.Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 24, 513–531.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rutter, M., & Schopler, E. (1986). Autism and pervasive developmental disorders: Concepts and diagnostic issues. In M. Rutter, H. Tuma, & I. Lann (Eds.)Assessment, diagnosis, and classification in child and adolescent psychiatry, New York: Guildford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sherman, S. L., Jacobs, P. A., Morton, N. E., Foster-Iskenius, U., Howard-Peebles, P. N., Nielson K. B., Partington, M. W., Sutherland, G. R., Turner, G., & Watson, M. (1985). Further segragation analysis of the fragile X syndrome with special reference to transmitting males.Human Genetics, 69, 289–299.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sherman, S. L., Morton, N. E., Jacobs, P. A., & Turner, g. (1984). The marker (X) syndrome: A cytogenetic and genetic analysis.Annals of Human Genetics, 48, 21–37.

    Google Scholar 

  • Silva, P. A. (1986). Epidemiology, longitudinal course and some associated factors: An up date. In M. Rutter, W. Yule, & M. Bax (Eds.),Language development and disorders (Series in clinics and Developmental Medicine). London: Spastic International/Blackwell Scientific.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sparkes, R. S., & Freeman, B. J. (1985). Gene mapping studies with the syndrome of autism.Behavior Genetics, 15, 1–13.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spence, M. A., Ritvo, E. R., Marazita, M. L., Funderburk, S. J., Sparkes, R. S., & Freeman, B. J. (1985). Gene mapping studies with the syndrome of autism.Behavior Genetics, 15, 1–13.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stanley, F., & E. Alberman (Eds.) (1984).The epidemiology of the cerebral palsies, (Clinics in Developmental Medicine, No. 87). London: Blackwell Scientific/Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincot.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stevenson, J., Hawcroft, J., Lobascher, M., Smith, I., Wolff, O. H., & Graham, P. J. (1979). Behavioural deviance in children with early-treated phenylketonuria.Archives of Desease Childhood, 54, 14–18.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sutherland, B. S., Berry, H. K., & Shirkey, H. C. (1960). A syndrome of phenylketonuria with normal intelligence and behavior disturbances.Journal of Pediatrics, 57, 521–525.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sutherland, G. R. (1977). Fragile sites on human chromosomes: Demonstration of their dependence on the type of tissue culture medium.Science, 197, 265–266.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sutherland, G. R. (1985). Heritable fragile sites on human chromosomes. XII. Population cytogenetics.Annals of Human Genetics, 49, 153–162.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sutherland, G. R., Turner, G., & Watson, M. (1985). Further segregation analysis of the fragile X syndrome with special reference to transmitting males.Human Genetics, 69, 289–299.

    Google Scholar 

  • Taft, L. T., & Cohen, H. J. (1971). Hypsarrhythmia and infantile autism: A clinical report.Journal of Autism and Childhood Schizophrenia, 1, 327–336.

    Google Scholar 

  • Treffert, D. A. (1970). Epidemiology of infantile autism.Archives of General Psychiatry, 22, 431–438.

    Google Scholar 

  • Turner, G., Brookwell, R., Daniel, A., Selikowitz, M., & Zilibowitz, M. (1980). Heterozygous expression of X-linked mental retardation and X-chromosome marker fra(X) (q27).New England Journal of Medicine, 303, 662–664.

    Google Scholar 

  • Valle, D., Pai, G. B., Thomas, G. H., & Pyeritz, R. E. (1980). Homocystinuria due to cystathionine beta-synthase deficiency: Clinical manifestations and therapy.John Hopkins Medical Journal, 146, 110–111.

    Google Scholar 

  • Varley, C. K., Holm, V. A., & Eren, M. O. (1985). Cognitive and psychiatric variability in three brothers with fragile X syndrome.Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 6, 87–90.

    Google Scholar 

  • Venter, P. A., Hof, J. O., Coetzee, D. J., Van der Walt, C., & Retief, A. E. (1984). No marker (X) syndrome in autistic children.Human Genetics, 67, 107.

    Google Scholar 

  • Waldrop, M. F., & Halverson, C. F. (1971). Minor physical anomalies and hyperactive behavior in young children. In J. Helmuth (Ed.),Exceptional infant: studies in abnormalities (Vol. 2). New York: Brunner/Mazel.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watson, M. S., Leckman, J. F., Annex, B., Breg, W. R., Boles, D., Volkmar, F. R., Cohen, D. H., & Carter, C. (1984). Fragile X in a survey of 75 autistic males.New England Journal of Medicine, 310, 1462.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, R. S., Hauser, S. L., Purpura, D., DeLong, R., & Swisher, C. N. (1980). Autism and mental retardation: Neuropathological studies performed in four retarded persons with autistic behavior.Archives of Neurology, 37, 749–753.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wing, J. K., O'Connor, N., & Lotter, V. (1967). Autistic conditions in early childhood: A survey in Middlesex.British Medical Journal 3, 389–392.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wing, L. (1981). Asperger's syndrome: A clinical account.Psychological Medicine, 11, 115–130.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wing, L., & Gould, J. (1979). Severe impairments of social interactions and associated abnormalities in children: Epidemiology and classification.Journal of Autism and Development Disorders, 9, 11–30.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wing, L., Yeates, S. R., Brierley, L. M., & Gould, J. (1976). The prevalence of early childhood autism: Comparison of administrative and epidemiological studies.Psychological Medicine 6, 89–100.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolff, S., & Barlow, A. (1979). Schizoid personality in childhood: A comparative study of schizoid, autistic and normal children.Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 20, 19–46.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolff, S., & Chick, J. (1980). Schizoid personality in childhood: A controlled follow-up study.Psychologial Medicine, 10, 85–100.

    Google Scholar 

  • Woolf, L. I., Griffiths, R., & Moncrieff, A. (1955). Treatment of phenylketonuria with a diet low in phenylalanine.British Medical Journal, 1, 57–64.

    Google Scholar 

  • Young, J., Kavanagh, M. E., Anderson, G. M., Shaywitz, B. A., & Cohen, D. J. (1982). Clinical neurochemistry of autism and associated disorders.Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 12, 147–166.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yule, W., & Rutter, M. (1985). Reading and other learning difficulties. In M. Rutter & L. Hersov (Eds.),Child adolescent psychiatry: Modern approaches (2nd ed., chap. 27). Oxford: Blackwell Scientific.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Institute of Psychiatry, London

    Michael L. Rutter

  2. Division of Psychiatric Genetics, Department of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland

    Susan E. Folstein

Authors
  1. Susan E. Folstein
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Michael L. Rutter
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Folstein, S.E., Rutter, M.L. Autism: Familial aggregation and genetic implications. J Autism Dev Disord 18, 3–30 (1988). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02211815

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02211815

Keywords

Search

Navigation