Background
Defining and measuring social capital
Aims
Methods
Data
Measures
Mental health
Educational attainment
Social support and social capital measures
Quality of parent–child relationships/adult’s interest in the child
Parental surveillance
Parental social networks
Adolescent’s sociability
Adolescent’s involvement in activities outside the home
Parental social class
Ethnicity
Data management
Statistical analysis
Results
% (N) | ||
---|---|---|
Sex | ||
Male | 50.88 (7,852) | |
Female | 49.12 (7,579) | |
Ethnicity | ||
White | 67.04 (10,555) | |
Mixed | 5.18 (815) | |
Indian | 6.47 (1,019) | |
Pakistani | 6.12 (963) | |
Bangladeshi | 4.72 (743) | |
Black Caribbean | 3.79 (596) | |
Black African | 3.96 (624) | |
Other | 2.72 (429) | |
Parental social class | ||
Higher professional and managerial | 12.42 (1,876) | |
Lower professional and managerial | 27.33 (4,127) | |
Intermediate | 10.61 (1,602) | |
Small employers and own account | 10.77 (1,626) | |
Lower supervisory and technical | 9.57 (1,445) | |
Semi-routine | 13.29 (2,007) | |
Routine | 8.39 (1,267) | |
Never worked and long-term unemployed | 7.63 (1,152) | |
Highest qualification of parents | Mother | Father |
Degree | 9.89 (1,405) | 14.06 (1,406) |
Higher education below degree | 11.94 (1,696) | 10.33 (1,033) |
A level or equivalent | 12.24 (1,739) | 16.62 (1,662) |
GCSE 5 grades A-C or equivalent | 27.52 (3,910) | 24.60 (2,459) |
Level 1 or below | 9.09 (1,292) | 6.57 (657) |
Other qualification | 1.82 (258) | 1.45 (145) |
No qualification | 27.51 (3,908) | 26.36 (2,635) |
Achieved 5 or more A*–C grades at GCSE | ||
Yes | 45.92 (7,200) | |
No | 54.08 (8,481) | |
GHQ caseness | ||
Not a GHQ case | 81.90 (10,414) | |
GHQ case | 18.10 (2,302) |
Univariable analysis: background variables
Odds of being case on GHQ | Odds of achieving 5+A*–C including Eng and Maths | |
---|---|---|
Gender | ||
Male | 1 | 1 |
Female |
2.49 (2.23–2.77)
|
1.34 (1.21–1.48)
|
Parental social class | ||
Higher professional/managerial | 1 | 1 |
Lower professional/managerial | 0.96 (0.82, 1.13) |
0.47 (0.41, 0.55)
|
Intermediate | 1.01 (0.82, 1.23) |
0.33 (0.28, 0.39)
|
Small employers/own account | 0.83 (0.67, 1.03) |
0.26 (0.22, 0.39)
|
Lower supervisory/tech | 0.91 (0.73, 1.14) |
0.13 (0.11, 0.16)
|
Semi-routine | 0.94 (0.75, 1.18) |
0.13 (0.11, 0.16)
|
Routine | 0.91 (0.71, 1.15) |
0.08 (0.07, 0.10)
|
Never worked/long-term unemployed | 1.20 (0.91, 1.59) |
0.08 (0.07, 0.11)
|
Ethnicity | ||
White | 1 | 1 |
Mixed |
1.48 (1.18–1.85)
| 0.90 (0.74–1.09) |
Indian | 0.81 (0.64–1.03) |
1.70 (1.40–2.06)
|
Pakistani | 0.89 (0.66–1.20) |
0.72 (0.56–0.92)
|
Bangladeshi | 1.14 (0.83–1.55) |
0.80 (0.64–0.99)
|
Black Caribbean | 0.97 (0.74–1.27) |
0.51 (0.41–0.65)
|
Black African | 1.07 (0.83–1.39) | 0.84 (0.66–1.07) |
Other |
1.83 (1.32–2.53)
| 1.37 (1.06–1.77) |
Gender interactions
Univariable analysis: family social support and community “social capital”
Odds of being case on GHQ | Odds of achieving 5+ A*–C including Eng and Maths | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Family social support | ||||
Relationship with father | ||||
Poor | 1 | 1 | ||
Moderate |
0.61 (0.53, 0.71)
|
1.28 (1.13, 1.44)
| ||
Good |
0.47 (0.40, 0.56)
|
1.34 (1.19, 1.50)
| ||
Relationship with mother | Boys | Girls | ||
Poor | 1 | 1 | 1 | |
Moderate |
0.69 (0.54–0.89)
|
0.63 (0.52–0.77)
|
1.17 (1.05. 1.32)
| |
Good |
0.63 (0.49–0.80)
|
0.44 (0.37–0.52)
|
1.24 (1.11, 1.38)
| |
Evening meal with family | ||||
None | 1 | 1 | ||
1 or 2 |
0.66 (0.54, 0.81)
|
1.48 (1.26, 1.74)
| ||
3 to 5 |
0.62 (0.51, 0.75)
|
2.06 (1.75, 2.41)
| ||
6 or 7 |
0.64 (0.54, 0.77)
|
2.23 (1.91, 2.61)
| ||
Parental surveillance | Boys | Girls | ||
Low | 1 | 1 | 1 | |
Moderate |
0.86 (0.75, 0.99)
|
1.31 (1.13–1.52)
| 1.17 (0.99–1.38) | |
High |
0.84 (0.74, 0.95)
|
1.80 (1.57–2.05)
|
1.80 (1.56–2.08)
| |
Community social capital | ||||
Extra-curricular activities | BOYS | GIRLS | ||
High | 1 | 1 | 1 | |
Moderate | 0.86 (0.73, 1.01) |
2.05 (1.64–2.55)
|
1.68 (1.43–1.96)
| |
Low | 0.93 (0.79, 1.10) |
3.17 (2.52–3.99)
|
3.13 (2.63–3.72)
| |
Community activities | ||||
No | 1 | 1 | ||
Yes | 0.95 (0.85, 1.07) | 1.06 (0.96, 1.17) | ||
Non-directed activity | ||||
No | 1 | 1 | ||
Yes |
1.13 (1.01, 1.26)
|
0.70 (0.65, 0.77)
| ||
Sociability | Boys | Girls | ||
Low | 1 | 1 | 1 | |
Moderate |
0.75 (0.58–0.97)
| 1.01 (0.83–1.22) |
1.16 (1.03, 1.31)
| |
High |
0.64 (0.49–0.84)
| 1.07 (0.89–1.30) |
0.53 (0.47, 0.61)
| |
Parental inv at school | ||||
None | 1 | 1 | ||
At least one activity | 0.96 (0.83, 1.11) |
2.48 (2.18, 2.82)
|
Multivariable analysis: GHQ
Model 1 | Model 2: adjusted for gender | Model 3: adjusted for gender and parental social class | Model 4: adjusted for gender and ethnicity | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Relationship with father | ||||
Poor | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Moderate |
0.71 (0.60–0.84)
|
0.77 (0.65–0.91)
|
0.77 (0.65–0.91)1 |
0.77 (0.65–0.91)
|
Good |
0.62 (0.50–0.77)
|
0.70 (0.56–0.86)
|
0.69 (0.56–0.86)
|
0.70 (0.56–0.86)
|
Relationship with mother | ||||
Poor | 1 | 1 | 1 |
1
|
Moderate | 0.85 (0.71–1.01) |
0.83 (0.70–1.00)
|
0.83 (0.69–0.99)
| 0.84 (0.70–1.00) |
Good |
0.73 (0.59–0.89)
|
0.66 (0.53–0.81)
|
0.65 (0.53–0.81)
|
0.65 (0.53–0.81)
|
Evening meal with family | ||||
Not at all | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Once or twice a week | 0.80 (0.62–1.03) | 0.81 (0.63–1.05) | 0.82 (0.63–1.05) | 0.82 (0.64––1.06) |
3 to 5 times a week |
0.75 (0.58–0.95)
|
0.76 (0.59–0.97)
|
0.76 (0.59–0.98)
|
0.76 (0.59–0.98)
|
6 or 7 times a week |
0.74 (0.59–0.92)
|
0.76 (0.61–0.96)
|
0.77 (0.61–0.96)
|
0.77 (0.61–0.96)
|
Parental surveillance | ||||
Low | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Moderate |
0.80 (0.66–0.96)
|
0.78 (0.65––0.94)
|
0.79 (0.65–0.95)
|
0.79 (0.66-0.95)
|
High | 0.88 (0.75–1.02) |
0.80 (0.68–0.94)
|
0.80 (0.69–0.94)
|
0.81 (0.69–0.94)
|
Non-directed activity | ||||
No | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Yes | 1.06 (0.92–1.22) | 1.06 (0.92–1.22) | 1.07 (0.93–1.23) | 1.08 (0.94–1.25) |
Sociability | ||||
Low | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Moderate | 0.87 (0.73–1.04) | 0.88 (0.73–1.05) | 0.88 (0.73–1.05) | 0.88 (0.73–1.06) |
High | 0.86 (0.72–1.04) | 0.90 (0.74–1.09) | 0.90 (0.74–1.09) | 0.91 (0.75–1.10) |
Wald p value for improvement in model fit | <0.0001 | 0.1065 | 0.0032 |
Multivariable analysis: GCSE
Model 1 | Model 2: adjusted for gender | Model 3: adjusted for gender and parental social class | Model 4: adjusted for gender, social class and ethnicity | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Relationship with father | ||||
Poor | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Moderate | 1.15 (1.00–1.33) |
1.20 (1.04–1.40)
|
1.17 (1.00–1.36)
| 1.17 (1.00–1.36) |
Good |
1.18 (1.00–1.40)
|
1.27 (1.07–1.50)
|
1.27 (1.07–1.51)
|
1.27 (1.06–1.51)
|
Relationship with mother | ||||
Poor | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Moderate | 1.00 (0.85–1.17) | 0.99 (0.84–1.17) | 1.00 (0.84–1.18) | 1.00 (0.85–1.19) |
Good | 0.89 (0.74–1.06) | 0.85 (0.71–1.01) | 0.88 (0.73–1.05) | 0.88 (0.73–1.05) |
Evening meal with family | ||||
Not at all | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Once or twice a week |
1.38 (1.12–1.71)
|
1.40 (1.13–1.74)
|
1.37 (1.10–1.71)
|
1.36 (1.09–1.70)
|
3 to 5 times a week |
1.74 (1.39–2.17)
|
1.76 (1.40–2.21)
|
1.77 (1.41–2.24)
|
1.76 (1.40–2.22)
|
6 or 7 times a week |
1.68 (1.36–2.06)
|
1.71 (1.39–2.12)
|
1.66 (1.34–2.05)
|
1.64 (1.33–2.03)
|
Parental surveillance | ||||
Low | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Moderate |
1.19 (1.02–1.38)
|
1.17 (1.01–1.37)
| 1.14 (0.98–1.34) | 1.15 (0.98–1.35) |
High |
1.48 (1.29–1.69)
|
1.41 (1.23–1.61)
|
1.37 (1.20–1.58)
|
1.37 (1.20–1.58)
|
Extra-curricular activities | ||||
Low | 1 | 1 |
1
|
1
|
Moderate |
1.52 (1.27–1.83)
|
1.60 (1.33–1.92)
|
1.44 (1.19–1.73)
|
1.46 (1.21–1.77)
|
High |
2.81 (2.32–3.40)
|
3.08 (2.54–3.74)
|
2.52 (2.07–3.06)
|
2.57 (2.11–3.13)
|
Non–directed activity | ||||
No | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Yes |
0.78 (0.69–0.87)
|
0.77 (0.69–0.86)
|
0.78 (0.69–0.87)
|
0.79 (0.70–0.89)
|
Sociability | ||||
Low | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Moderate | 1.05 (0.90–1.23) | 1.06 (0.90–1.24) | 1.00 (0.85–1.18) | 1.01 (0.86–1.20) |
High |
0.50 (0.42–0.58)
|
0.50 (0.43–0.58)
|
0.50 (0.42–0.59)
|
0.51 (0.43–0.61)
|
Parental involvement at school | ||||
No | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Yes |
1.91 (1.64–2.23)
|
1.92 (1.65–2.23)
|
1.59 (1.36–1.86)
|
1.60 (1.37–1.87)
|
Wald p value for improvement in model fit | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 |