nach oben

Experimental Brain Research

Erschienen in:

01.11.2014 | Review

Electrifying the motor engram: effects of tDCS on motor learning and control

verfasst von: Jean-Jacques Orban de Xivry, Reza Shadmehr

Erschienen in: Experimental Brain Research | Ausgabe 11/2014

Einloggen, um Zugang zu erhalten

Abstract

Learning to control our movements is accompanied by neuroplasticity of motor areas of the brain. The mechanisms of neuroplasticity are diverse and produce what is referred to as the motor engram, i.e., the neural trace of the motor memory. Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) alters the neural and behavioral correlates of motor learning, but its precise influence on the motor engram is unknown. In this review, we summarize the effects of tDCS on neural activity and suggest a few key principles: (1) Firing rates are increased by anodal polarization and decreased by cathodal polarization, (2) anodal polarization strengthens newly formed associations, and (3) polarization modulates the memory of new/preferred firing patterns. With these principles in mind, we review the effects of tDCS on motor control, motor learning, and clinical applications. The increased spontaneous and evoked firing rates may account for the modulation of dexterity in non-learning tasks by tDCS. The facilitation of new association may account for the effect of tDCS on learning in sequence tasks while the ability of tDCS to strengthen memories of new firing patterns may underlie the effect of tDCS on consolidation of skills. We then describe the mechanisms of neuroplasticity of motor cortical areas and how they might be influenced by tDCS. We end with current challenges for the fields of brain stimulation and motor learning.

Albert DJ (1966) The effects of polarizing currents on the consolidation of learning. Neuropsychologia 4:65–77CrossRef

Allen EA, Pasley BN, Duong T, Freeman RD (2007) Transcranial magnetic stimulation elicits coupled neural and hemodynamic consequences. Science 317(80):1918–1921

Antal A, Nitsche MA, Kincses TZ, Kruse W, Hoffmann K-P, Paulus W (2004) Facilitation of visuo-motor learning by transcranial direct current stimulation of the motor and extrastriate visual areas in humans. Eur J Neurosci 19:2888–2892PubMedCrossRef

Arce F, Novick I, Mandelblat-Cerf Y, Israel Z, Ghez C, Vaadia E (2010a) Combined adaptiveness of specific motor cortical ensembles underlies learning. J Neurosci 30:5415–5425PubMedCrossRef

Arce F, Novick I, Mandelblat-Cerf Y, Vaadia E (2010b) Neuronal correlates of memory formation in motor cortex after adaptation to force field. J Neurosci 30:9189–9198PubMedCrossRef

Aydin-Abidin S, Moliadze V, Eysel UT, Funke K (2006) Effects of repetitive TMS on visually evoked potentials and EEG in the anaesthetized cat: dependence on stimulus frequency and train duration. J Physiol 574:443–455PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Bastani A, Jaberzadeh S (2012) Does anodal transcranial direct current stimulation enhance excitability of the motor cortex and motor function in healthy individuals and subjects with stroke: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Neurophysiol 123:644–657

Bastani A, Jaberzadeh S (2014) Within-session repeated a-tDCS: The effects of repetition rate and inter-stimulus interval on corticospinal excitability and motor performance. Clin Neurophysiol doi:10.1016/j.clinph.2014.01.010

Bennett C, Baird A, Miller MB, Wolford GL (2011) Neural correlates of interspecies perspective taking in the post-mortem atlantic salmon: an argument for proper multiple comparisons correction. J Serendipitous 1:1–5

Benninger DH, Lomarev MP, Lopez G, Wassermann EM, Li X, Considine E, Hallett M (2010) Transcranial direct current stimulation for the treatment of Parkinson’s disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 81:1105–1111PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Benninger DH, Lomarev M, Lopez G, Pal N, Luckenbaugh DA, Hallett M (2011) Transcranial direct current stimulation for the treatment of focal hand dystonia. Mov Disord 26:1698–1702

Bikson M, Inoue M, Akiyama H, Deans JK, Fox JE, Miyakawa H, Jefferys JGR (2004) Effects of uniform extracellular DC electric fields on excitability in rat hippocampal slices in vitro. J Physiol 557:175–190PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Bikson M, Datta A, Rahman A, Scaturro J (2010) Electrode montages for tDCS and weak transcranial electrical stimulation: role of “return” electrode’s position and size. Clin Neurophysiol 121:1976–1978PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Bindman LJ, Lippold OCJ, Redfearn JWT (1962) Long-lasting changes in the level of the electrical activity of the cerebral cortex produced by polarizing currents. Nature 196:584–585PubMedCrossRef

Bindman LJ, Lippold OCJ, Redfearn JWT (1964) The action of brief polarizing currents on the cerebral cortex of the rat (1) during current flow and (2) in the production of long-lasting after-effects. J Physiol 172:369–382PubMedPubMedCentral

Bishop GH, O’Leary JL (1950) The effects of polarizing currents on cell potentials and their significance in the interpretation of central nervous system activity. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 2:401–416PubMedCrossRef

Boggio PS, Castro LO, Savagim EA, Braite R, Cruz VC, Rocha RR, Rigonatti SP, Silva MTA, Fregni F (2006) Enhancement of non-dominant hand motor function by anodal transcranial direct current stimulation. Neurosci Lett 404:232–236

Brazovskaya F, Malikova A, Pavlygina R (1972) After-effects of anodal polarization in the cat cerebral cortex. Neurophysiology 4:194–199CrossRef

Buitrago MM, Ringer T, Schulz JB, Dichgans J, Luft AR (2004) Characterization of motor skill and instrumental learning time scales in a skilled reaching task in rat. Behav Brain Res 155:249–256PubMedCrossRef

Butler AJ, Shuster M, O’Hara E, Hurley K, Middlebrooks D, Guilkey K (2013) A meta-analysis of the efficacy of anodal transcranial direct current stimulation for upper limb motor recovery in stroke survivors. J Hand Ther 26:162–171PubMedCrossRef

Buttkus F, Weidenmüller M, Schneider S, Jabusch H-C, Nitsche MA, Paulus W, Altenmüller E (2010) Failure of cathodal direct current stimulation to improve fine motor control in musician’s dystonia. Mov Disord 25:389–394PubMedCrossRef

Button KS, Ioannidis JPA, Mokrysz C, Nosek BA, Flint J, Robinson ESJ, Munafò MR (2013) Power failure: why small sample size undermines the reliability of neuroscience. Nat Rev Neurosci 14:365–376

Cantarero G, Lloyd A, Celnik PA (2013a) Reversal of long-term potentiation-like plasticity processes after motor learning disrupts skill retention. J Neurosci 33:12862–12869PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Cantarero G, Tang B, O’Malley R, Salas R, Celnik PA (2013b) Motor learning interference is proportional to occlusion of LTP-like plasticity. J Neurosci 33:4634–4641

Caparelli-Daquer EM, Zimmermann TJ, Mooshagian E, Parra LC, Rice JK, Datta A, Bikson M, Wassermann EM (2012) A pilot study on effects of 4 × 1 high-definition tDCS on motor cortex excitability. In: Conference on proceedings of IEEE engineering in medicine and biology society, pp 735–738

Carmeli E, Patish H, Coleman R (2003) The aging hand. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 58:146–152PubMedCrossRef

Castro-Alamancos MA, Borrell J (1993) Motor activity induced by disinhibition of the primary motor cortex of the rat is blocked by a non-NMDA glutamate receptor antagonist. Neurosci Lett 150:183–186

Censor N, Dimyan MA, Cohen LG (2010) Modification of existing human motor memories is enabled by primary cortical processing during memory reactivation. Curr Biol 20:1545–1549PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Chan CY, Nicholson C (1986) Modulation by applied electric fields of Purkinje and stellate cell activity in the isolated turtle cerebellum. J Physiol 371:89–114PubMedPubMedCentral

Chan CY, Hounsgaard J, Nicholson C (1988) Effects of electric fields on transmembrane potential and excitability of turtle cerebellar Purkinje cells in vitro. J Physiol 402:751–771PubMedPubMedCentral

Chen H, Hua SE, Smith MA, Lenz FA, Shadmehr R (2006) Effects of human cerebellar thalamus disruption on adaptive control of reaching. Cereb Cortex 16:1462–1473

Churchland MM, Cunningham JP, Kaufman MT, Ryu SI, Shenoy KV (2010) Cortical preparatory activity: representation of movement or first cog in a dynamical machine? Neuron 68:387–400PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Churchland MM, Cunningham JP, Kaufman MT, Foster JD, Nuyujukian P, Ryu SI, Shenoy KV (2012) Neural population dynamics during reaching. Nature 487:51–56PubMedPubMedCentral

Clarkson AN, Huang BS, MacIsaac SE, Mody I, Carmichael ST (2010) Reducing excessive GABA-mediated tonic inhibition promotes functional recovery after stroke. Nature 468:305–309PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Coderre AM, Zeid AA, Dukelow SP, Demmer MJ, Moore KD, Demers MJ, Bretzke H, Herter TM, Glasgow JI, Norman KE, Bagg SD, Scott SH (2010) Assessment of upper-limb sensorimotor function of subacute stroke patients using visually guided reaching. Neurorehabil Neural Repair 24:528–541PubMedCrossRef

Cogiamanian F, Marceglia S, Ardolino G, Barbieri S, Priori A (2007) Improved isometric force endurance after transcranial direct current stimulation over the human motor cortical areas. Eur J Neurosci 26:242–249PubMedCrossRef

Cohen D, Nicolelis MAL (2004) Reduction of single-neuron firing uncertainty by cortical ensembles during motor skill learning. J Neurosci 24:3574–3582PubMedCrossRef

Convento S, Bolognini N, Fusaro M, Lollo F, Vallar G (2014) Neuromodulation of parietal and motor activity affects motor planning and execution. Cortex. doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2014.03.006

Costa RM, Cohen D, Nicolelis MAL (2004) Differential corticostriatal plasticity during fast and slow motor skill learning in mice. Curr Biol 14:1124–1134PubMedCrossRef

Creutzfeldt O, Fromm G, Kapp H (1962) Influence of transcortical dc currents on cortical neuronal activity. Exp Neurol 452:436–452CrossRef

Criscimagna-Hemminger SE, Shadmehr R (2008) Consolidation patterns of human motor memory. J Neurosci 28:9610–9618PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Criscimagna-Hemminger SE, Bastian AJ, Shadmehr R (2010) Size of error affects cerebellar contributions to motor learning. J Neurophysiol 103:2275–2284PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Crochet S, Fuentealba P, Timofeev I, Steriade M (2004) Selective amplification of neocortical neuronal output by fast prepotentials in vivo. Cereb Cortex 14:1110–1121PubMedCrossRef

Cuypers K, Leenus DJF, van den Berg FE, Nitsche MA, Thijs H, Wenderoth N, Meesen RLJ (2013) Is motor learning mediated by tDCS intensity? PLoS One 8:e67344

DaSilva AF, Volz MS, Bikson M, Fregni F (2011) Electrode positioning and montage in transcranial direct current stimulation. J Vis Exp 51:1–9

Datta A, Truong D, Minhas P, Parra LC, Bikson M (2012) Inter-individual variation during transcranial direct current stimulation and normalization of dose using MRI-derived computational models. Front Psychiatry 3:1–8CrossRef

Della-Maggiore V, Scholz J, Johansen-Berg H, Paus T (2009) The rate of visuomotor adaptation correlates with cerebellar white-matter microstructure. Hum Brain Mapp 30:4048–4053PubMedCrossRef

Demmer J, Dragunow M, Lawlor PA, Mason SE, Leah JD, Abraham WC, Tate WP (1993) Differential expression of immediate early genes after hippocampal long-term potentiation in awake rats. Brain Res Mol Brain Res 17:279–286

Denney D, Brookhart JM (1962) The effects of applied polarization on evoked electro-cortical waves in the cat. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 14:885–897PubMedCrossRef

Derksen MJ, Ward NL, Hartle KD, Ivanco TL (2007) MAP2 and synaptophysin protein expression following motor learning suggests dynamic regulation and distinct alterations coinciding with synaptogenesis. Neurobiol Learn Mem 87:404–415PubMedCrossRef

Di Lazzaro V, Manganelli F, Dileone M, Notturno F, Esposito M, Capasso M, Dubbioso R, Pace M, Ranieri F, Minicuci G, Santoro L, Uncini A (2012) The effects of prolonged cathodal direct current stimulation on the excitatory and inhibitory circuits of the ipsilateral and contralateral motor cortex. J. Neural Transm. 119:1499–1506PubMedCrossRef

Donchin O, Sawaki L, Madupu G, Cohen LG, Shadmehr R (2002) Mechanisms influencing acquisition and recall of motor memories. J Neurophysiol 88:2114–2123PubMedCrossRef

Donchin O, Rabe K, Diedrichsen J, Lally N, Schoch B, Gizewski ER, Timmann D (2012) Cerebellar regions involved in adaptation to force field and visuomotor perturbation. J Neurophysiol 107:134–147. doi:10.1152/jn.00007.2011

Edwards D, Cortes M, Datta A, Minhas P, Wassermann EM, Bikson M (2013) Physiological and modeling evidence for focal transcranial electrical brain stimulation in humans: a basis for high-definition tDCS. Neuroimage 74:266–275PubMedCrossRef

Elbert T, Lutzenberger W, Rockstroh B, Birbaumer N (1981) The influence of low-level transcortical DC-currents on response speed in humans. Int J Neurosci 14:101–114PubMedCrossRef

Elsner B, Kugler J, Pohl M, Mehrholz J (2013) Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) for improving function and activities of daily living in patients after stroke. Cochrane Datab Syst Rev 11:CD009645

Floyer-Lea A, Wylezinska M, Kincses TZ, Matthews PM (2006) Rapid modulation of GABA concentration in human sensorimotor cortex during motor learning. J Neurophysiol 95:1639–1644PubMedCrossRef

Fox GQ, Kötting D, Richardson GP (1984) Investigations into a bioelectric component of synaptogenesis. Brain Res 311:31–37PubMedCrossRef

Fregni F, Boggio PS, Mansur CG, Wagner T, Ferreira MJL, Lima MC, Rigonatti SP, Marcolin MA, Freedman SD, Nitsche MA, Pascual-Leone A (2005) Transcranial direct current stimulation of the unaffected hemisphere in stroke patients. NeuroReport 16:1551–1555PubMedCrossRef

Fregni F, Boggio PS, Santos MC, Lima M, Vieira AL, Rigonatti SP, Silva MTA, Barbosa ER, Nitsche MA, Pascual-Leone A (2006) Noninvasive cortical stimulation with transcranial direct current stimulation in Parkinson’s disease. Mov Disord 21:1693–1702

Fritsch B, Reis J, Martinowich K, Schambra HM, Ji Y, Cohen LG, Lu B (2010) Direct current stimulation promotes BDNF-dependent synaptic plasticity: potential implications for motor learning. Neuron 66:198–204PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Fu M, Yu X, Lu J, Zuo Y (2012) Repetitive motor learning induces coordinated formation of clustered dendritic spines in vivo. Nature 483:92–95

Furuya S, Nitsche MA, Paulus W, Altenmüller E (2014) Surmounting retraining limits in musicians’ dystonia by transcranial stimulation. Ann Neurol 75:700–707. doi:10.1002/ana.24151

Galea JM, Celnik PA (2009) Brain polarization enhances the formation and retention of motor memories. J Neurophysiol 102:294–301

Galea JM, Jayaram G, Ajagbe L, Celnik PA (2009) Modulation of cerebellar excitability by polarity-specific noninvasive direct current stimulation. J Neurosci 29:9115–9122

Galea JM, Vazquez A, Pasricha N, Orban de Xivry J-J, Celnik PA (2011) Dissociating the roles of the cerebellum and motor cortex during adaptive learning: the motor cortex retains what the cerebellum learns. Cereb Cortex 21:1761–1770

Gandolfo F, Li C, Benda BJ, Padoa-Schioppa C, Bizzi E (2000) Cortical correlates of learning in monkeys adapting to a new dynamical environment. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 97:2259–2263PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Gartside IB (1968a) Mechanisms of sustained increases of firing rate of neurons in the rat cerebral cortex after polarization: reverberating circuits or modification of synaptic conductance? Nature 220:382–383PubMedCrossRef

Gartside IB (1968b) Mechanisms of sustained increases of firing rate of neurones in the rat cerebral cortex after polarization: role of protein synthesis. Nature 220:382–383PubMedCrossRef

Gibo TL, Criscimagna-Hemminger SE, Okamura AM, Bastian AJ (2013) Cerebellar motor learning: are environment dynamics more important than error size? J Neurophysiol 110:322–333. doi:10.1152/jn.00745.2012

Goodwill AM, Reynolds J, Daly RM, Kidgell DJ (2013) Formation of cortical plasticity in older adults following tDCS and motor training. Front Aging Neurosci 5:1–9CrossRef

Gross L (2006) Membrane oscillations keep neurons on the right track. PLoS Biol 4:e191PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Grzegorzewska M, Przybylo M, Litynska A, Hess G (2004) Chemically-induced long-term potentiation in rat motor cortex involves activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase cascade. Brain Res 192–9:1021

Hadipour-Niktarash A, Lee CK, Desmond JE, Shadmehr R (2007) Impairment of retention but not acquisition of a visuomotor skill through time-dependent disruption of primary motor cortex. J Neurosci 27:13413–13419PubMedCrossRef

Haith AM, Krakauer JW (2013) Model-based and model-free mechanisms of human motor learning. Adv Exp Med Biol 782:1–21PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Hardwick RM, Celnik PA (2014) Cerebellar direct current stimulation enhances motor learning in older adults. Neurobiol Aging. doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2014.03.030

Hardwick RM, Rottschy C, Miall RC, Eickhoff SB (2012) A quantitative meta-analysis and review of motor learning in the human brain. Neuroimage. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.11.020

Hattori Y, Moriwaki A, Hori Y (1990) Biphasic effects of polarizing current on adenosine-sensitive generation of cyclic AMP in rat cerebral cortex. Neurosci Lett 116:320–324PubMedCrossRef

Henderson AK, Pittman QJ, Teskey GC (2012) High frequency stimulation alters motor maps, impairs skilled reaching performance and is accompanied by an upregulation of specific GABA, glutamate and NMDA receptor subunits. Neuroscience 215:98–113

Herzfeld DJ, Pastor D, Haith AM, Rossetti Y, Shadmehr R, O’Shea J (2014) Contributions of the cerebellum and the motor cortex to acquisition and retention of motor memories. Neuroimage. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2014.04.076 PubMed

Hess G (2004) Synaptic plasticity of local connections in rat motor cortex. Acta Neurobiol Exp (Wars) 64:271–276

Hess G, Aizenman CD, Donoghue JP (1996) Conditions for the induction of long-term potentiation in layer II/III horizontal connections of the rat motor cortex. J Neurophysiol 75:1765–1778PubMed

Heuninckx S, Wenderoth N, Swinnen SP (2008) Systems neuroplasticity in the aging brain: recruiting additional neural resources for successful motor performance in elderly persons. J Neurosci 28:91–99PubMedCrossRef

Hill TC, Zito K (2013) LTP-induced long-term stabilization of individual nascent dendritic spines. J Neurosci 33:678–686PubMedCrossRef

Hodgson RA, Ji Z, Standish S, Boyd-Hodgson TE, Henderson AK, Racine RJ (2005) Training-induced and electrically induced potentiation in the neocortex. Neurobiol Learn Mem 83:22–32

Hosp JA, Molina-Luna K, Atiemo CO, Hertler B, Luft AR (2009) Dopaminergic modulation of motor maps in rat motor cortex: an in vivo study. Neuroscience 159:692–700PubMedCrossRef

Hosp JA, Pekanovic A, Rioult-Pedotti M-S, Luft AR (2011) Dopaminergic projections from midbrain to primary motor cortex mediate motor skill learning. J Neurosci 31:2481–2487PubMedCrossRef

Huang VS, Haith AM, Mazzoni P, Krakauer JW (2011) Rethinking motor learning and savings in adaptation paradigms: model-free memory for successful actions combines with internal models. Neuron 70:787–801PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Huber D, Gutnisky DA, Peron S, O’Connor DH, Wiegert JS, Tian L, Oertner TG, Looger LL, Svoboda K (2012) Multiple dynamic representations in the motor cortex during sensorimotor learning. Nature 484:473–478

Hummel FC, Celnik PA, Giraux P, Floel A, Wu W-H, Gerloff C, Cohen LG (2005) Effects of non-invasive cortical stimulation on skilled motor function in chronic stroke. Brain 128:490–499PubMedCrossRef

Hummel FC, Voller B, Celnik PA, Floel A, Giraux P, Gerloff C, Cohen LG (2006) Effects of brain polarization on reaction times and pinch force in chronic stroke. BMC Neurosci 7:73

Hummel FC, Heise K, Celnik PA, Floel A, Gerloff C, Cohen LG (2010) Facilitating skilled right hand motor function in older subjects by anodal polarization over the left primary motor cortex. Neurobiol Aging 31:2160–2168PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Hunter T, Sacco P, Nitsche MA, Turner DL (2009) Modulation of internal model formation during force field-induced motor learning by anodal transcranial direct current stimulation of primary motor cortex. J Physiol 587:2949–2961PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Ioannidis JPA (2014) Errors (my very own) and the fearful uncertainty of numbers. Eur J Clin Invest. doi:10.1111/eci.12277

Islam N, Moriwaki A, Hattori Y, Hori Y (1994) Anodal polarization induces protein kinase C γ (PKCγ)-like immunoreactivity in the rat cerebral cortex. Neurosci Res 21:169–172PubMedCrossRef

Islam N, Moriwaki A, Hattori Y, Hayashi Y, Lu YF, Hori Y (1995) c-Fos expression mediated by N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors following anodal polarization in the rat brain. Exp Neurol 133:25–31PubMedCrossRef

Isomura Y, Harukuni R, Takekawa T, Aizawa H, Fukai T (2009) Microcircuitry coordination of cortical motor information in self-initiation of voluntary movements. Nat Neurosci 12:1586–1593PubMedCrossRef

Ivanco T, Racine R, Kolb B (2000) Morphology of layer III pyramidal neurons is altered following induction of LTP in sensorimotor cortex of the freely moving rat. Synapse 22:16–22CrossRef

Izawa J, Criscimagna-Hemminger SE, Shadmehr R (2012) Cerebellar contributions to reach adaptation and learning sensory consequences of action. J Neurosci 32:4230–4239PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Jackson A, Mavoori J, Fetz EE (2006) Long-term motor cortex plasticity induced by an electronic neural implant. Nature 444:56–60PubMedCrossRef

Jacobs K, Donoghue JP (1991) Reshaping the cortical motor map by unmasking latent intracortical connections. Science 251(80):944–947

Jayaram G, Tang B, Pallegadda R, Vasudevan EVL, Celnik PA, Bastian AJ (2012) Modulating locomotor adaptation with cerebellar stimulation. J Neurophysiol. doi:10.1152/jn.00645.2011

Joiner WM, Smith MA (2008) Long-term retention explained by a model of short-term learning in the adaptive control of reaching. J Neurophysiol 100:2948–2955PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Kabakov AY, Muller PA, Pascual-Leone A, Jensen FE, Rotenberg A (2012) Contribution of axonal orientation to pathway-dependent modulation of excitatory transmission by direct current stimulation in isolated rat hippocampus. J Neurophysiol 107:1881–1889

Kandel M, Beis J-M, Le Chapelain L, Guesdon H, Paysant J (2012) Non-invasive cerebral stimulation for the upper limb rehabilitation after stroke: a review. Ann Phys Rehabil Med 55:657–680PubMedCrossRef

Kang EK, Paik N-J (2011) Effect of a tDCS electrode montage on implicit motor sequence learning in healthy subjects. Exp Transl Stroke Med 3:4PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Kargo WJ, Nitz DA (2003) Early skill learning is expressed through selection and tuning of cortically represented muscle synergies. J Neurosci 23:11255–11269

Kargo WJ, Nitz DA (2004) Improvements in the signal-to-noise ratio of motor cortex cells distinguish early versus late phases of motor skill learning. J Neurosci 24:5560–5569PubMedCrossRef

Karok S, Witney AG (2013) Enhanced motor learning following task-concurrent dual transcranial direct current stimulation. PLoS ONE 8:e85693PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Khedr EM, Shawky OA, El-Hammady DH, Rothwell JC, Darwish ES, Mostafa OM, Tohamy AM (2013) Effect of anodal versus cathodal transcranial direct current stimulation on stroke rehabilitation: a pilot randomized controlled trial. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. doi:10.1177/1545968313484808

Kidgell DJ, Goodwill AM, Frazer AK, Daly RM (2013) Induction of cortical plasticity and improved motor performance following unilateral and bilateral transcranial direct current stimulation of the primary motor cortex. BMC Neurosci 14:64PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Kilavik BE, Roux S, Ponce-Alvarez A, Confais J, Grün S, Riehle A (2009) Long-term modifications in motor cortical dynamics induced by intensive practice. J Neurosci 29:12653–12663PubMedCrossRef

Kleim JA, Lussnig E, Schwarz ER, Comery TA, Greenough WT (1996) Synaptogenesis and Fos expression in the motor cortex of the adult rat after motor skill learning. J Neurosci 16:4529–4535PubMed

Kleim JA, Barbay S, Nudo RJ (1998) Functional reorganization of the rat motor cortex following motor skill learning. J Neurophysiol 80:3321–3325PubMed

Kleim JA, Bruneau R, Calder K, Pocock D, VandenBerg PM, MacDonald E, Monfils M-H, Sutherland RJ, Nader K (2003) Functional organization of adult motor cortex is dependent upon continued protein synthesis. Neuron 40:167–176PubMedCrossRef

Kleim JA, Chan S, Pringle E, Schallert K, Procaccio V, Jimenez R, Cramer SC (2006) BDNF val66met polymorphism is associated with modified experience-dependent plasticity in human motor cortex. Nat Neurosci 9:735–737

Klintsova AY, Dickson E, Yoshida R, Greenough WT (2004) Altered expression of BDNF and its high-affinity receptor TrkB in response to complex motor learning and moderate exercise. Brain Res 92–104:1028

Komiyama T, Sato TR, O’Connor DH, Zhang Y-X, Huber D, Hooks BM, Gabitto M, Svoboda K (2010) Learning-related fine-scale specificity imaged in motor cortex circuits of behaving mice. Nature 464:1182–1186PubMedCrossRef

Krug M, Lössner B, Ott T (1984) Anisomycin blocks the late phase of long-term potentiation in the dentate gyrus of freely moving rats. Brain Res Bull 13:39–42PubMedCrossRef

Kubota K (1996) Motor cortical muscimol injection disrupts forelimb movement in freely moving monkeys. Neuroreport 7:2379–2384

Kuo M-F, Unger M, Liebetanz D, Lang N, Tergau F, Paulus W, Nitsche MA (2008) Limited impact of homeostatic plasticity on motor learning in humans. Neuropsychologia 46:2122–2128PubMedCrossRef

Kuo H-I, Bikson M, Datta A, Minhas P, Paulus W, Kuo M-F, Nitsche MA (2012) Comparing cortical plasticity induced by conventional and high-definition 4 × 1 ring tDCS: a neurophysiological study. Brain Stimul. doi:10.1016/j.brs.2012.09.010

Lackner J, DiZio P (1994) Rapid adaptation to coriolis force perturbations of arm trajectory. J Neurophysiol 72:299PubMed

Lakens D, Evers ERK (2014) Sailing from the seas of chaos into the corridor of stability: practical recommendations to increase the informational value of studies. Perspect Psychol Sci 9:278–292CrossRef

Lampropoulou SI, Nowicky AV (2013) The effect of transcranial direct current stimulation on perception of effort in an isolated isometric elbow flexion task. Mot Control 17:412–426

Landau WM, Bishop GH, Clare MH (1964) Analysis of the form and distribution of evoked cortical potentials under the influence of polarizing currents. J Neurophysiol 27:788–813PubMed

Landi SM, Baguear F, Della-Maggiore V (2011) One week of motor adaptation induces structural changes in primary motor cortex that predict long-term memory one year later. J Neurosci 31:11808–11813PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Lefebvre S, Dricot L, Gradkowski W, Laloux P, Vandermeeren Y (2012a) Brain activations underlying different patterns of performance improvement during early motor skill learning. Neuroimage 62:290–299PubMedCrossRef

Lefebvre S, Laloux P, Peeters A, Desfontaines P, Jamart J, Vandermeeren Y (2012b) Dual-tDCS enhances online motor skill learning and long-term retention in chronic stroke patients. Front Hum Neurosci 6:343PubMedPubMedCentral

Lefebvre S, Thonnard J-L, Laloux P, Peeters A, Jamart J, Vandermeeren Y (2013) Single Session of dual-tDCS transiently improves precision grip and dexterity of the paretic hand after stroke. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. doi:10.1177/1545968313478485

Leite J, Carvalho S, Fregni F, Gonçalves ÓF (2011) Task-specific effects of tDCS-induced cortical excitability changes on cognitive and motor sequence set shifting performance. PLoS ONE 6:e24140PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Leversen JSR, Haga M, Sigmundsson H (2012) From children to adults: motor performance across the life-span. PLoS ONE 7:e38830PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Li CS, Padoa-Schioppa C, Bizzi E (2001) Neuronal correlates of motor performance and motor learning in the primary motor cortex of monkeys adapting to an external force field. Neuron 30:593–607PubMedCrossRef

Lindenberg R, Renga V, Zhu LL, Nair D, Schlaug G (2010) Bihemispheric brain stimulation facilitates motor recovery in chronic stroke patients. Neurology 75:2176–2184PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Ling DSF, Benardo LS, Serrano PA, Blace N, Kelly MT, Crary JF, Sacktor TC (2002) Protein kinase Mzeta is necessary and sufficient for LTP maintenance. Nat Neurosci 5:295–296PubMedCrossRef

Lohse KR, Wadden K, Boyd LA, Hodges NJ (2014) Motor skill acquisition across short and long time scales: a meta-analysis of neuroimaging data. Neuropsychologia. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2014.05.001

Lu X, Ashe J (2005) Anticipatory activity in primary motor cortex codes memorized movement sequences. Neuron 45:967–973PubMedCrossRef

Luft AR, Buitrago MM (2005) Stages of motor skill learning. Mol Neurobiol 32:205–216PubMedCrossRef

Luft AR, Buitrago MM, Ringer T, Dichgans J, Schulz JB (2004) Motor skill learning depends on protein synthesis in motor cortex after training. J Neurosci 24:6515–6520PubMedCrossRef

Lustig C, Shah P, Seidler RD, Reuter-Lorenz PA (2009) Aging, training, and the brain: a review and future directions. Neuropsychol Rev 19:504–522

Madhavan S, Weber KA, Stinear JW (2011) Non-invasive brain stimulation enhances fine motor control of the hemiparetic ankle: implications for rehabilitation. Exp Brain Res 209:9–17PubMedCrossRef

Mahmoudi H, Borhani Haghighi A, Petramfar P, Jahanshahi S, Salehi Z, Fregni F (2011) Transcranial direct current stimulation: electrode montage in stroke. Disabil Rehabil 33:1383–1388PubMedCrossRef

Mandelblat-Cerf Y, Novick I, Paz R, Link Y, Freeman S, Vaadia E (2011) The neuronal basis of long-term sensorimotor learning. J Neurosci 31:300–313PubMedCrossRef

Marquez J, van Vliet P, McElduff P, Lagopoulos J, Parsons M (2013a) Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS): does it have merit in stroke rehabilitation? A systematic review. Int J Stroke 1–11. doi:10.1111/ijs.12169 (in press)

Marquez CMS, Zhang X, Swinnen SP, Meesen R, Wenderoth N (2013b) Task-specific effect of transcranial direct current stimulation on motor learning. Front Hum Neurosci 7:333

Márquez-Ruiz J, Leal-Campanario R, Sánchez-Campusano R, Molaee-Ardekani B, Wendling F, Miranda PC, Ruffini G, Gruart A, Delgado-García JM (2012) Transcranial direct-current stimulation modulates synaptic mechanisms involved in associative learning in behaving rabbits. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 109:6710–6715PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Marshall L, Mölle M, Siebner HR, Born J (2005) Bifrontal transcranial direct current stimulation slows reaction time in a working memory task. BMC Neurosci. 6:23PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Martin TA, Keating JG, Goodkin HP, Bastian AJ, Thach WT (1996) Throwing while looking through prisms. I. Focal olivocerebellar lesions impair adaptation. Brain 119(Pt 4):1183–1198

Matsumura M, Sawaguchi T, Kubota K (1992) GABAergic inhibition of neuronal activity in the primate motor and premotor cortex during voluntary movement. J Neurophysiol 68:692–702PubMed

Matsuo A, Maeoka H, Hiyamizu M, Shomoto K, Morioka S, Seki K (2011) Enhancement of precise hand movement by transcranial direct current stimulation. NeuroReport 22:78–82PubMedCrossRef

Matsuzaka Y, Picard N, Strick PL (2007) Skill representation in the primary motor cortex after long-term practice. J Neurophysiol 97:1819–1832PubMedCrossRef

Mazzoni P, Shabbott BA, Cortés JC (2012) Motor control abnormalities in Parkinson’s disease. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med 2:a009282

McCaig CD, Rajnicek AM (1991) Electrical fields, nerve growth and nerve regeneration. Exp Physiol 76:473–494PubMed

McCambridge AB, Bradnam LV, Stinear CM, Byblow WD (2011) Cathodal transcranial direct current stimulation of the primary motor cortex improves selective muscle activation in the ipsilateral arm. J Neurophysiol. doi:10.1152/jn.00171.2011

McHughen SA, Rodriguez PF, Kleim JA, Kleim ED, Crespo LM, Procaccio V, Cramer SC (2010) BDNF val66met polymorphism influences motor system function in the human brain. Cereb Cortex 20:1254–1262

McHughen SA, Pearson-Fuhrhop K, Ngo VK, Cramer SC (2011) Intense training overcomes effects of the Val66Met BDNF polymorphism on short-term plasticity. Exp Brain Res 213:415–422

Mei F, Nagappan G, Ke Y, Sacktor TC, Lu B (2011) BDNF facilitates L-LTP maintenance in the absence of protein synthesis through PKMζ. PLoS ONE 6:e21568PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Merchant H, Naselaris T, Georgopoulos AP (2008) Dynamic sculpting of directional tuning in the primate motor cortex during three-dimensional reaching. J Neurosci 28:9164–9172PubMedCrossRef

Miniussi C, Harris JA, Ruzzoli M (2013) Modelling non-invasive brain stimulation in cognitive neuroscience. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 37:1702–1712

Moliadze V, Antal A, Paulus W (2010a) Electrode-distance dependent after-effects of transcranial direct and random noise stimulation with extracephalic reference electrodes. Clin Neurophysiol 121:2165–2171PubMedCrossRef

Moliadze V, Antal A, Paulus W (2010b) Boosting brain excitability by transcranial high frequency stimulation in the ripple range. J Physiol 588:4891–4904PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Molina-Luna K, Pekanovic A, Röhrich S, Hertler B, Schubring-Giese M, Rioult-Pedotti M-S, Luft AR (2009) Dopamine in motor cortex is necessary for skill learning and synaptic plasticity. PLoS ONE 4:e7082PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Monfils M-H, Plautz EJ, Kleim JA (2005) In search of the motor engram: motor map plasticity as a mechanism for encoding motor experience. Neurosci 11:471–483

Morrell F (1961) Effect of anodal polarization on the firing pattern of single cortical cells. Ann N Y Acad Sci 92:860–876PubMedCrossRef

Muellbacher W, Ziemann U, Wissel J, Dang N, Kofler M, Facchini S, Boroojerdi B, Poewe W, Hallett M (2002) Early consolidation in human primary motor cortex. Nature 415:640–644PubMedCrossRef

Murayama K, Pekrun R, Fiedler K (2013) Research practices that can prevent an inflation of false-positive rates. Personal Soc Psychol Rev. doi:10.1177/1088868313496330

Mutha PK, Sainburg RL, Haaland KY (2011) Critical neural substrates for correcting unexpected trajectory errors and learning from them. Brain. doi:10.1093/brain/awr275

Nazarpour K, Barnard A, Jackson A (2012) Flexible cortical control of task-specific muscle synergies. J Neurosci 32:12349–12360PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Nieuwenhuis S, Forstmann BU, Wagenmakers E (2011) Erroneous analyses of interactions in neuroscience: a problem of significance. Nat Neurosci 14:1105–1107PubMedCrossRef

Nitsche MA, Paulus W (2000) Excitability changes induced in the human motor cortex by weak transcranial direct current stimulation. J Physiol 527:633–639PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Nitsche MA, Schauenburg A, Lang N, Liebetanz D, Exner C, Paulus W, Tergau F (2003) Facilitation of implicit motor learning by weak transcranial direct current stimulation of the primary motor cortex in the human. J Cogn Neurosci 15:619–626PubMedCrossRef

Nitsche MA, Doemkes S, Karakose T, Antal A, Liebetanz D, Lang N, Tergau F, Paulus W, Karaköse T (2007) Shaping the effects of transcranial direct current stimulation of the human motor cortex. J Neurophysiol 97:3109PubMedCrossRef

Orban de Xivry J-J, Criscimagna-Hemminger SE, Shadmehr R (2011a) Contributions of the motor cortex to adaptive control of reaching depend on the perturbation schedule. Cereb Cortex 21:1475–1484

Orban de Xivry J-J, Marko MK, Pekny SE, Pastor D, Izawa J, Celnik PA, Shadmehr R (2011b) Stimulation of the human motor cortex alters generalization patterns of motor learning. J Neurosci 31:7102–7110

Orban de Xivry J-J, Ahmadi-Pajouh MA, Harran MD, Salimpour Y, Shadmehr R (2013) Changes in corticospinal excitability during reach adaptation in force fields. J Neurophysiol 109:124–136

Parikh PJ, Cole KJ (2014) Effects of transcranial direct current stimulation in combination with motor practice on dexterous grasping and manipulation in healthy older adults. Physiol Rep 2:n/a–n/a

Paz R, Vaadia E (2004) Specificity of sensorimotor learning and the neural code: neuronal representations in the primary motor cortex. J Physiol Paris 98:331–348PubMedCrossRef

Paz R, Boraud T, Natan C, Bergman H, Vaadia E (2003) Preparatory activity in motor cortex reflects learning of local visuomotor skills. Nat Neurosci 6:882–890PubMedCrossRef

Paz R, Natan C, Boraud T, Bergman H, Vaadia E (2005) Emerging patterns of neuronal responses in supplementary and primary motor areas during sensorimotor adaptation. J Neurosci 25:10941–10951PubMedCrossRef

Peters AJ, Chen SX, Komiyama T (2014) Emergence of reproducible spatiotemporal activity during motor learning. Nature. doi:10.1038/nature13235

Picard N, Matsuzaka Y, Strick PL (2013) Extended practice of a motor skill is associated with reduced metabolic activity in M1. Nat Neurosci 16:1340–1347

Prichard G, Weiller C, Fritsch B, Reis J (2014) Effects of different electrical brain stimulation protocols on subcomponents of motor skill learning. Brain Stimul. doi:10.1016/j.brs.2014.04.005 PubMed

Priori A, Berardelli A, Rona S, Accornero N, Manfredi M (1998) Polarization of the human motor cortex through the scalp. NeuroReport 9:2257–2260PubMedCrossRef

Purpura DP, McMurtry JG (1965) Intracellular activities and evoked potential changes during polarization of motor cortex. J Neurophysiol 28:166–185PubMed

Radman T, Ramos RL, Brumberg JC, Bikson M (2009) Role of cortical cell type and morphology in subthreshold and suprathreshold uniform electric field stimulation in vitro. Brain Stimul 2:215.e3–228.e3

Rahman A, Reato D, Arlotti M, Gasca F, Datta A, Parra LC, Bikson M (2013) Cellular effects of acute direct current stimulation: somatic and synaptic terminal effects. J Physiol. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.2012.247171

Ranieri F, Podda MV, Riccardi E, Frisullo G, Dileone M, Profice P, Pilato F, Di Lazzaro V, Grassi C (2012) Modulation of LTP at rat hippocampal CA3-CA1 synapses by direct current stimulation. J Neurophysiol 107:1868–1880PubMedCrossRef

Reato D, Rahman A, Bikson M, Parra LC (2010) Low-intensity electrical stimulation affects network dynamics by modulating population rate and spike timing. J Neurosci 30:15067–15079PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Reis J, Fritsch B (2011) Modulation of motor performance and motor learning by transcranial direct current stimulation. Curr Opin Neurol 24:590–596PubMedCrossRef

Reis J, Schambra HM, Cohen LG, Buch ER, Fritsch B, Zarahn E, Celnik PA, Krakauer JW (2009) Noninvasive cortical stimulation enhances motor skill acquisition over multiple days through an effect on consolidation. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 106:1590–1595

Reis J, Fischer JT, Prichard G, Weiller C, Cohen LG, Fritsch B (2013) Time- but not sleep-dependent consolidation of tDCS-enhanced visuomotor skills. Cereb Cortex. doi:10.1093/cercor/bht208

Richardson AG, Overduin SA, Valero-Cabré A, Padoa-Schioppa C, Pascual-Leone A, Bizzi E, Press DZ (2006) Disruption of primary motor cortex before learning impairs memory of movement dynamics. J Neurosci 26:12466–12470

Richardson AG, Borghi T, Bizzi E (2012) Activity of the same motor cortex neurons during repeated experience with perturbed movement dynamics. J Neurophysiol 107:3144–3154PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Rioult-Pedotti M-S, Friedman D, Hess G, Donoghue JP (1998) Strengthening of horizontal cortical connections following skill learning. Nat Neurosci 1:230–234PubMedCrossRef

Rioult-Pedotti M-S, Friedman D, Donoghue JP (2000) Learning-induced LTP in neocortex. Science 290 (80):533–536

Rosenkranz K, Nitsche MA, Tergau F, Paulus W (2000) Diminution of training-induced transient motor cortex plasticity by weak transcranial direct current stimulation in the human. Neurosci Lett 296:61–63PubMedCrossRef

Ruohonen J, Karhu J (2012) tDCS possibly stimulates glial cells. Clin Neurophysiol 123:2006–2009PubMedCrossRef

Safstrom D, Flanagan JR, Johansson RS (2013) Skill learning involves optimizing the linking of action phases. J Neurophysiol. doi:10.1152/jn.00019.2013

Sailer U, Flanagan JR, Johansson RS (2005) Eye-hand coordination during learning of a novel visuomotor task. J Neurosci 25:8833–8842PubMedCrossRef

Salimpour Y, Shadmehr R (2014) Motor costs and the coordination of the two arms. J Neurosci 34:1806–1818PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Salimpour Y, Mari Z, Shadmehr R (2013) Motor costs in Parkinson’s disease. In: Translational and computational motor control. http://www.seas.harvard.edu/motorlab/TCMC2013/76.pdf

Schaefer AT, Angelo K, Spors H, Margrie TW (2006) Neuronal oscillations enhance stimulus discrimination by ensuring action potential precision. PLoS Biol 4:e163PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Schambra HM, Abe M, Luckenbaugh DA, Reis J, Krakauer JW, Cohen LG (2011) Probing for hemispheric specialization for motor skill learning: a transcranial direct current stimulation study. J Neurophysiol 106:652–661

Schieber MH, Poliakov AV (1998) Partial inactivation of the primary motor cortex hand area: effects on individuated finger movements. J Neurosci 18:9038–9054PubMed

Seidler RD (2007) Aging affects motor learning but not savings at transfer of learning. Learn. Mem 14:17–21PubMedCrossRef

Serrano P, Friedman EL, Kenney J, Taubenfeld SM, Zimmerman JM, Hanna J, Alberini CM, Kelley AE, Maren S, Rudy JW, Yin JCP, Sacktor TC, Fenton AA (2008) PKMzeta maintains spatial, instrumental, and classically conditioned long-term memories. PLoS Biol 6:2698–2706

Shadmehr R, Holcomb H (1997) Neural correlates of motor memory consolidation. Science (80) 277:821–825

Shadmehr R, Krakauer JW (2008) A computational neuroanatomy for motor control. Exp Brain Res 185:359–381PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Shadmehr R, Mussa-Ivaldi FA (1994) Adaptive representation of dynamics during learning of a motor task. J Neurosci 14:3208–3224

Shadmehr R, Smith MA, Krakauer JW (2010) Error correction, sensory prediction, and adaptation in motor control. Annu Rev Neurosci 33:89–108PubMedCrossRef

Shekhawat GS, Stinear CM, Searchfield GD (2013) Transcranial direct current stimulation intensity and duration effects on tinnitus suppression. Neurorehabil. Neural Repair 27:164–172PubMedCrossRef

Shenoy KV, Sahani M, Churchland MM (2013) Cortical control of arm movements: a dynamical systems perspective. Annu Rev Neurosci 36:337–359

Shmuelof L, Krakauer JW, Mazzoni P (2012) How is a motor skill learned? Change and invariance at the levels of task success and trajectory control. J Neurophysiol 108:578–594

Siebner HR, Tormos JM, Ceballos-Baumann AO, Auer C, Catala MD, Conrad B, Pascual-Leone A (1999) Low-frequency repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation of the motor cortex in writer’s cramp. Neurology 52:529–537PubMedCrossRef

Simmons JP, Nelson LD, Simonsohn U (2011) False-positive psychology: undisclosed flexibility in data collection and analysis allows presenting anything as significant. Psychol Sci 22:1359–1366PubMedCrossRef

Simonsohn U, Nelson LD, Simmons JP (2014) P-curve: a key to the file-drawer. J Exp Psychol Gen 143:534–547PubMedCrossRef

Smith MA, Shadmehr R (2005) Intact ability to learn internal models of arm dynamics in Huntington’s disease but not cerebellar degeneration. J Neurophysiol 93:2809–2821PubMedCrossRef

Smith CD, Umberger GH, Manning EL, Slevin JT, Wekstein DR, Schmitt FA, Markesbery WR, Zhang Z, Gerhardt GA, Kryscio RJ, Gash DM (1999) Critical decline in fine motor hand movements in human aging. Neurology 53:1458–1458

Smith MA, Ghazizadeh A, Shadmehr R (2006) Interacting adaptive processes with different timescales underlie short-term motor learning. PLoS Biol 4:e179PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Sohn MK, Kim BO, Song HT (2012) Effect of stimulation polarity of transcranial direct current stimulation on non-dominant hand function. Ann Rehabil Med 36:1–7PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Sokolov EN (1977) Brain functions: neuronal mechanisms of learning and memory. Annu Rev Psychol 28:85–112CrossRef

Stagg CJ, Best JG, Stephenson MC, O’Shea J, Wylezinska M, Kincses TZ, Morris PG, Matthews PM, Johansen-Berg H (2009) Polarity-sensitive modulation of cortical neurotransmitters by transcranial stimulation. J Neurosci 29:5202–5206PubMedCrossRef

Stagg CJ, Bachtiar V, Johansen-Berg H (2011a) The role of GABA in human motor learning. Curr Biol 21:480–484PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Stagg CJ, Jayaram G, Pastor D, Kincses ZT, Matthews PM, Johansen-Berg H (2011b) Polarity and timing-dependent effects of transcranial direct current stimulation in explicit motor learning. Neuropsychologia 49:800–804PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Stagg CJ, Bachtiar V, O’Shea J, Allman C, Bosnell RA, Kischka U, Matthews PM, Johansen-Berg H (2012) Cortical activation changes underlying stimulation-induced behavioural gains in chronic stroke. Brain 135:276–284PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Taig E, Kuper M, Theysohn N, Timmann D, Donchin O (2012) Deficient use of visual information in estimating hand position in cerebellar patients. J Neurosci 32:16274–16284PubMedCrossRef

Tanaka J-I, Horiike Y, Matsuzaki M, Miyazaki T, Ellis-Davies GCR, Kasai H (2008) Protein synthesis and neurotrophin-dependent structural plasticity of single dendritic spines. Science 319 (80):1683–1687

Tanaka S, Hanakawa T, Honda M, Watanabe K (2009) Enhancement of pinch force in the lower leg by anodal transcranial direct current stimulation. Exp Brain Res 196:459–465PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Tanaka T, Takano Y, Tanaka S, Hironaka N, Kobayashi K, Hanakawa T, Watanabe K, Honda M (2013) Transcranial direct-current stimulation increases extracellular dopamine levels in the rat striatum. Front Syst Neurosci 7:6PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Tecchio F, Zappasodi F, Assenza G, Tombini M, Vollaro S, Barbati G, Rossini PM (2010) Anodal transcranial direct current stimulation enhances procedural consolidation. J Neurophysiol 104:1134–1140PubMedCrossRef

Terney D, Chaieb L, Moliadze V, Antal A, Paulus W (2008) Increasing human brain excitability by transcranial high-frequency random noise stimulation. J Neurosci 28:14147–14155PubMedCrossRef

Teyler TJ, DiScenna P (1987) Long-term potentiation. Annu Rev Neurosci 10:131–161PubMedCrossRef

Thoroughman KA, Shadmehr R (2000) Learning of action through adaptive combination of motor primitives. Nature 407:742–747

Trepel C, Racine R (2000) GABAergic modulation of neocortical long-term potentiation in the freely moving rat. Synapse 128:120–128CrossRef

Tyryshkin K, Coderre AM, Glasgow JI, Herter TM, Bagg SD, Dukelow SP, Scott SH (2014) A robotic object hitting task to quantify sensorimotor impairments in participants with stroke. J Neuroeng Rehabil 11:47PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Valentino F, Cosentino G, Brighina F, Pozzi NG, Sandrini G, Fierro B, Savettieri G, D’Amelio M, Pacchetti C (2014) Transcranial direct current stimulation for treatment of freezing of gait: a cross-over study. Mov Disord 00:1–5

Vandermeeren Y, Lefebvre S, Desfontaines P, Laloux P (2013) Could dual-hemisphere transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) reduce spasticity after stroke? Acta Neurol Belg 113:87–89PubMedCrossRef

Verheyden G, Purdey J, Burnett M, Cole J, Ashburn A (2013) Immediate effect of transcranial direct current stimulation on postural stability and functional mobility in Parkinson’s disease. Mov Disord 28:2040–2041PubMedCrossRef

Villalta JI, Landi SM, Fló A, Della-Maggiore V (2013) Extinction interferes with the retrieval of visuomotor memories through a mechanism involving the sensorimotor cortex. Cereb Cortex. doi:10.1093/cercor/bht346

Vines BW, Nair DG, Schlaug G (2006) Contralateral and ipsilateral motor effects after transcranial direct current stimulation. NeuroReport 17:671–674PubMedCrossRef

Vines BW, Cerruti C, Schlaug G (2008a) Dual-hemisphere tDCS facilitates greater improvements for healthy subjects’ non-dominant hand compared to uni-hemisphere stimulation. BMC Neurosci 9:103PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Vines BW, Nair DG, Schlaug G (2008b) Modulating activity in the motor cortex affects performance for the two hands differently depending upon which hemisphere is stimulated. Eur J Neurosci 28:1667–1673PubMedCrossRef

Von Kraus LM, Sacktor TC, Francis JT (2010) Erasing sensorimotor memories via PKMzeta inhibition. PLoS ONE 5:e11125CrossRef

Voronin L (1968) Action of surface polarization on intracellular unit activity in the motor cortex of waking rabbits. Neurosci Behav Physiol 18:691–698CrossRef

Wang L, Conner JM, Rickert J, Tuszynski MH (2011) Structural plasticity within highly specific neuronal populations identifies a unique parcellation of motor learning in the adult brain. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 108:1–6CrossRef

Ward NS (2003) Age-related changes in the neural correlates of motor performance. Brain 126:873–888PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Waters-Metenier S, Husain M, Wiestler T, Diedrichsen J (2014) Bihemispheric transcranial direct current stimulation enhances effector-independent representations of motor synergy and sequence learning. J Neurosci 34:1037–1050PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Williams JA, Pascual-Leone A, Fregni F (2010) Interhemispheric modulation induced by cortical stimulation and motor training. Phys Ther 90:398–410PubMedCrossRef

Xu T, Yu X, Perlik AJ, Tobin WF, Zweig JA, Tennant KA, Jones T, Zuo Y (2009) Rapid formation and selective stabilization of synapses for enduring motor memories. Nature 462:915–919

Yang G, Pan F, Gan W-B (2009) Stably maintained dendritic spines are associated with lifelong memories. Nature 462:920–924PubMedCrossRef

Yu X, Zuo Y (2010) Spine plasticity in the motor cortex. Curr Opin Neurobiol 21:169–174PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Zimerman M, Heise KF, Hoppe J, Cohen LG, Gerloff C, Hummel FC (2012) Modulation of training by single-session transcranial direct current stimulation to the intact motor cortex enhances motor skill acquisition of the paretic hand. Stroke 43:2185–2191PubMedCrossRef

Zimerman M, Nitsch M, Giraux P, Gerloff C, Cohen LG, Hummel FC (2013) Neuroenhancement of the aging brain: restoring skill acquisition in old subjects. Ann Neurol 73:10–15PubMedCrossRef

Titel: Electrifying the motor engram: effects of tDCS on motor learning and control
verfasst von: Jean-Jacques Orban de Xivry
Reza Shadmehr
Publikationsdatum: 01.11.2014
Verlag: Springer Berlin Heidelberg
Erschienen in: Experimental Brain Research / Ausgabe 11/2014
Print ISSN: 0014-4819
Elektronische ISSN: 1432-1106
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-014-4087-6

Leitlinien kompakt für die Neurologie

Mit medbee Pocketcards sicher entscheiden.

^{Seit 2022 gehört die medbee GmbH zum Springer Medizin Verlag}

Kostenlos registrieren

Neu im Fachgebiet Neurologie

23.04.2024 | Demenz | Nachrichten

Update Neurologie

Bestellen Sie unseren Fach-Newsletter und bleiben Sie gut informiert.

Newsletter bestellen

Live-Webinar: Aktuelle Leitlinien bei Herz-Kreislauf-Erkrankungen

Springer Medizin

Electrifying the motor engram: effects of tDCS on motor learning and control

Abstract

Leitlinien kompakt für die Neurologie

Neu im Fachgebiet Neurologie

Demenzkranke durch Antipsychotika vielfach gefährdet

Parkinson-Therapie im Wandel – aktuelle Leitlinie im Fokus

Auf diese Krankheiten bei Geflüchteten sollten Sie vorbereitet sein

Hustenstiller lindert Agitation bei Alzheimer

Update Neurologie

Live-Webinar: Aktuelle Leitlinien bei Herz-Kreislauf-Erkrankungen

Springer Medizin

Abstract

Bitte loggen Sie sich ein, um Zugang zu diesem Inhalt zu erhalten

Weitere Artikel der Ausgabe 11/2014

Control of reach extent with the paretic and nonparetic arms after unilateral sensorimotor stroke II: planning and adjustments to control movement distance

Age-related differences in distractor interference on line bisection

Viewer perspective in the mirroring of actions

Hand-use and tool-use in grasping control

Tracing the time course of n − 2 repetition costs in task switching

Implementation of specific motor expertise during a mental rotation task of hands

Leitlinien kompakt für die Neurologie

Neu im Fachgebiet Neurologie

Demenzkranke durch Antipsychotika vielfach gefährdet

Parkinson-Therapie im Wandel – aktuelle Leitlinie im Fokus

Auf diese Krankheiten bei Geflüchteten sollten Sie vorbereitet sein

Hustenstiller lindert Agitation bei Alzheimer

Update Neurologie