Introduction
Methods
Design
Baseline assessment of dietary intake
Identification of dietary patterns and assignment of pattern-adherence scores
Longitudinal assessment of BMD
Longitudinal assessment of anthropometrics
Assessment of covariates
Covariates assessed at baseline
Covariates assessed at other visits
Status of body weight change; definitions of weight gain and weight loss
Population of analysis
Statistical analysis
Characteristics of the study population
Longitudinal associations between dietary pattern adherence and BMD
Influence of sex and changes in body weight
Sensitivity analyses
Results
Dietary pattern identification
Pattern | 1 | 2 | 3 |
---|---|---|---|
High factor loadings for | Meat, fat, potatoes, eggs | Processed meat, alcohol, mixed meals, eggs | Fruit, vegetables, poultry, fish, alcohol, eggs |
Low factor loadings for | Soy products, mixed meals | Fruit, yoghurt | Sweets |
Label | “Traditional” | “Processed” | “Health conscious” |
---|---|---|---|
Fruit and fruit products | −.036 |
−.548
|
.219
|
Vegetables and vegetable products | .182 | −.187 |
.240
|
Pulses and legumes | −.046 | −.010 | −.110 |
Milk and milk products | .014 | −.192 | .054 |
Yoghurt | −.038 |
−.506
| .114 |
Cheese products | −.037 | .086 | −.001 |
Soy products |
−.498
| .159 | −.031 |
Refined grain products | .005 | .170 | .082 |
Whole grain products | .063 | .011 | −.052 |
Soft drinks and lemonades | .097 | −.082 | .149 |
Eggs |
.280
|
.258
|
.257
|
Unprocessed meat |
.641
| .086 | −.076 |
Processed meat |
.520
|
.451
| .054 |
Poultry | −.023 | −.022 |
.494
|
Fatty fish | −.071 | .137 |
.524
|
Lean and battered fish | −.029 | −.150 |
.629
|
Shell fish | .032 | −.024 |
.326
|
Savoury snacks | .015 | −.073 | −.006 |
Sweets | .131 | −.177 |
−.211
|
Nuts and seeds | −.007 | .089 | .051 |
Vegetable oils and fats |
.296
| .072 | .006 |
Animal fats |
.243
| .092 | −.090 |
Coffee tea and water | .027 | −.135 | .081 |
Alcoholic drinks | .154 |
.558
|
.202
|
Mixed mealsa
|
−.208
|
.372
| .117 |
Soups and sauces | .089 | .077 | .192 |
Potatoes |
.582
| .095 | −.185 |
Porridges | −.064 | −.008 | .007 |
Study population for investigating associations between pattern adherence and BMD
“Traditional” pattern | “Processed” pattern | “Health conscious” pattern | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1st tertile | 2nd tertile | 3rd tertile | 1st tertile | 2nd tertile | 3rd tertile | 1st tertile | 2nd tertile | 3rd tertile | |
Age (years)a
| 67 (61–74) | 67 (62–74) | 66 (61–72) | 68 (62–74) | 68 (62–74) | 66 (61–72) | 68 (63–75) | 66 (61–73) | 67 (61–72) |
Total energy intake (kcal/d)a
| 1684 (1453–1987) | 1877 (1616–2161) | 2210 (1922–2538) | 1886 (1602–2233) | 1861 (1581, 2191) | 2027 (1687, 2351) | 1929 (1616–2262) | 1887 (1599–2208) | 1955 (1634–2304) |
Physical activity (h/day)a
| 5.9 (4.3–7.9) | 5.6 (4.0–7.4) | 5.9 (4.4–8.0) | 6.0 (4.3, 8.0) | 5.7 (4.0, 7.4) | 5.7 (4.2, 7.8) | 5.6 (3.9–7.6) | 6.0 (4.3–7.8) | 5.9 (4.4–7.9) |
Of which vigorous (h/week)a
| 3.3 (1.3–6.5) | 3.1 (1.0–6.7) | 3.5 (1.0–7.0) | 3.2 (1.5–7.3) | 3.3 (1.0, 6.5) | 3.5 (1.0–7.0) | 3.0 (1.0–6.3) | 3.5 (1.3–7.0) | 3.6 (1.5–7.2) |
Dutch healthy diet indexa,b
| 52 (45–59) | 49 (43, 56) | 44 (38–51) | 53(46–59) | 49 (42–55) | 44 (37, 50) | 44 (37–51) | 49(42–56) | 52 (45–58) |
Calcium intake (mg/day)a
| 1090 (869, 1331) | 1075 (863, 1304) | 1066 (857, 1331) | 1208 (997, 1475) | 1053 (858, 1286) | 968 (758, 1203) | 1017 (814–1260) | 1077 (870–1319) | 1141 (899–1390) |
25 (OH) D3 (nmol/l)a,c
| 41 (27–57) | 46 (30–65) | 47 (31–69) | 43 (28–62) | 43 (29, 62) | 48 (32, 69) | 41(26–60) | 46(30–64) | 47 (32–68) |
BMD at 1st visit (mg/cm2)a,f
| 0.84 (0.75, 0.94) | 0.85 (0.77, 0.94) | 0.89 (0.79, 0.99) | 0.85 (0.76–0.94) | 0.86 (0.77–0.95) | 0.88 (0.78–0.97) | 0.85 (0.76–0.94) | 0.86 (0.77–0.96) | 0.88 (0.78–0.97) |
BMD at 2nd visit (mg/cm2)a,f
| 0.84 (0.74, 0.94) | 0.85 (0.76, 0.95) | 0.89 (0.79, 0.98) | 0.85 (0.75–0.95) | 0.85 (0.76–0.95) | 0.88 (0.78–0.98) | 0.85 (0.74–0.94) | 0.86 (0.76–0.96) | 0.88 (0.78–0.97) |
BMD at 3rd visit (mg/cm2)a,f
| 0.84 (0.74, 0.93) | 0.86 (0.76, 0.96) | 0.89 (0.79, 0.99) | 0.85 (0.75–0.95) | 0.85 (0.76–0.95) | 0.88 (0.78–0.98) | 0.84 (0.74–0.95) | 0.86 (0.77–0.96) | 0.88 (0.79–0.97) |
BMD at 4th visit (mg/cm2)a,f
| 0.84 (0.74, 0.92) | 0.85 (0.76, 0.94) | 0.88 (0.78, 0.98) | 0.84 (0.75–0.94) | 0.85 (0.76–0.94) | 0.86 (0.76–0.93) | 0.83 (0.74–0.92) | 0.85 (0.76–0.95) | 0.87 (0.77–0.96) |
Body weight at 1st visit (kg)a
| 70 (63, 78) | 73 (66, 80) | 76 (69, 84) | 72 (65–81) | 73 (65–81) | 75 (67–83) | 72 (65–80) | 72 (65–80) | 74 (67–83) |
Body weight at 2nd visit (kg)a
| 70 (63, 78) | 74 (66, 81) | 77 (69, 85) | 72 (65–81) | 73 (64–80) | 76 (68–83) | 72 (65–80) | 73 (65–81) | 75 (68–83) |
Body weight at 3rd visit (kg)a
| 71 (62, 79) | 74 (66, 81) | 77 (69, 85) | 73 (65–83) | 73 (65–81) | 77 (68–84) | 73 (64–80) | 73 (65–81) | 75 (68–83) |
Body weight at 4th visit (kg)a
| 72 (63, 81) | 75 (67, 83) | 78 (70, 87) | 73 (65–82) | 4 (66–83) | 77 (68–86) | 74 (65–82) | 74 (66–83) | 76 (69–85) |
Baseline body height (cm)a
| 164 (159, 171) | 166 (160, 173) | 171 (164, 177) | 164 (160–171) | 166 (160–173) | 171 (164–177) | 167 (160–174) | 166 (161–173) | 167 (161–174) |
Sex (% males) | 26 | 38 | 59 | 24 | 36 | 62 | 58 | 61 | 58 |
Body weight change (% loss/gain)d
| 15/36 | 17/34 | 18/29 | 17/35 | 17/32 | 16/31 | 19/29 | 16/33 | 15/35 |
Prevalent osteoporosis (%) | 14 | 12 | 8 | 11 | 13 | 10 | 14 | 11 | 9 |
Prevalent type 2 diabetes (%) | 9 | 9 | 11 | 9 | 9 | 11 | 10 | 9 | 10 |
Prevalent CVD (%) | 12 | 13 | 13 | 11 | 14 | 12 | 13 | 12 | 12 |
High education (%) | 36 | 36 | 38 | 32 | 35 | 44 | 33 | 37 | 40 |
High income (% >1600 euro/mo) | 47 | 51 | 54 | 48 | 48 | 56 | 46 | 51 | 55 |
Current smokers (%) | 19 | 20 | 28 | 14 | 22 | 34 | 24 | 22 | 23 |
Current or past HRT use (%)e
| 9 | 10 | 8 | 9 | 9 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 11 |
Lipid lowering drug use (%) | 3 | 2 | 2 | 3 | 3 | 2 | 2 | 3 | 3 |
Antihypertensive drug use (%) | 12 | 13 | 13 | 12 | 14 | 12 | 13 | 13 | 13 |
Lower limb disabled (%) | 20 | 18 | 15 | 20 | 19 | 15 | 20 | 16 | 17 |
Associations between adherence to identified dietary patterns and BMD
Adherence to the: | Model 11
| Model 21
| Model 31
|
P for interaction with time2
|
---|---|---|---|---|
“Traditional” pattern |
0.05 (0.02, 0.08) |
0.06 (0.03, 0.09) | 0.01 (−0.01, 0.04) | 0.48 |
“Processed” pattern | −0.05 (−0.08, −0.02) |
−0.03 (−0.06, −0.01) |
−0.03 (−0.06, −0.00) | 0.99 |
“Health conscious” pattern |
0.06 (0.04, 0.09) |
0.06 (0.03, 0.08) |
0.04 (0.02, 0.07) |
0.01
|