Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Research Methods in Child Disaster Studies: A Review of Studies Generated by the September 11, 2001, Terrorist Attacks; the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami; and Hurricane Katrina

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Child & Youth Care Forum Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Background

A comprehensive review of the design principles and methodological approaches that have been used to make inferences from the research on disasters in children is needed.

Objective

To identify the methodological approaches used to study children’s reactions to three recent major disasters—the September 11, 2001, attacks; the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami; and Hurricane Katrina.

Methods

This review was guided by a systematic literature search.

Results

A total of 165 unduplicated empirical reports were generated by the search and examined for this review. This included 83 references on September 11, 29 on the 2004 Tsunami, and 53 on Hurricane Katrina.

Conclusions

A diversity of methods has been brought to bear in understanding children’s reactions to disasters. While cross-sectional studies predominate, pre-event data for some investigations emerged from archival data and data from studies examining non-disaster topics. The nature and extent of the influence of risk and protective variables beyond disaster exposure are not fully understood due, in part, to limitations in the study designs used in the extant research. Advancing an understanding of the roles of exposure and various individual, family, and social factors depends upon the extent to which measures and assessment techniques are valid and reliable, as well as on data sources and data collection designs. Comprehensive assessments that extend beyond questionnaires and checklists to include interviews and cognitive and biological measures to elucidate the negative and positive effects of disasters on children also may improve the knowledge base.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Aber, J. L., Gershoff, E. T., Ware, A., & Kotler, J. A. (2004). Estimating the effects of September 11th and other forms of violence on the mental health and social development of New York City’s youth: A matter of context. Applied Developmental Science, 8(3), 111–129. doi:10.1207/s1532480xads0803_2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Achenbach, T. M. (1991). Manual for the child behavioral check-list/4–18 and 1991 profile. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry.

    Google Scholar 

  • Achenbach, T. M., McConaughy, S. H., & Howell, C. T. (1987). Child/adolescent behavioral and emotional problems: Implications of cross-informant correlations for situational specificity. Psychological Bulletin, 101(2), 213–232. doi:10.1037//0033-2909.101.2.213.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. (2010). Practice parameter for the assessment and treatment of children and adolescents with posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 49(4), 414–430.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author. text rev.

    Google Scholar 

  • Applied Research and Consulting, LLC, Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health, and New York State Psychiatric Institute. (2002). Effects of the World Trade Center attack on NYC public school students: Initial report to the New York City Board of Education. Retrieved from http://www.impact.arq.org/doc/kennisbank/1000010739-1.pdf.

  • Ayers, T. S., Sandler, I. N., West, S. G., & Roosa, M. W. (1996). A dispositional and situational assessment of children’s coping: Testing alternative models of coping. Journal of Personality, 64(4), 923–958. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1996.tb00949.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Balaban, V. (2006). Psychological assessment of children in disasters and emergencies. Disasters, 30(2), 178–198. doi:10.1111/j.0361-3666.2006.00314.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Balas, A., & Guttman, A. (2003). The impact of 9/11 through the lens of the child psychoanalyst: A study with psychoanalytic reflections. Psychoanalysis and Psychotherapy, 20(2), 175–198.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychology research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(6), 1173–1182. doi:10.1037//0022-3514.51.6.1173.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beauchaine, T. (2001). Vagal tone, development, and Gray’s motivational theory: Toward an integrated model of autonomic nervous system functioning in psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 183–214. doi:10.1017/S0954579401002012.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beauchesne, M. A., Kelley, B. R., Patsdaughter, C. A., & Pickard, J. (2002). Attack on America: Children’s reactions and parents’ responses. Journal of Pediatric Health Care, 16(5), 213–221. doi:10.1067/mph.2002.127353.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Becker-Blease, K. A., Finkelhor, D., & Turner, H. (2008). Media exposure predicts children’s reactions to crime and terrorism. Journal of Trauma and Dissociation, 9(2), 225–248. doi:10.1080/15299730802048652.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Becker-Blease, K. A., Turner, H. A., & Finkelhor, D. (2010). Disasters, victimization, and children’s mental health. Child Development, 81(4), 1040–1052. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01453.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Berger, R., & Gelkopf, M. (2009). School-based intervention for the treatment of Tsunami-related distress in children: A quasi-randomized controlled trial. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 78, 364–371. doi:10.1159/000235976.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blaze, J. T., & Shwalb, D. W. (2009). Resource loss and relocation: A follow-up study of adolescents 2 years after Hurricane Katrina. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 1(4), 312–322. doi:10.1037/a0017834.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bonanno, G. A., Brewin, C. R., Kaniasty, K., & La Greca, A. M. (2010). Weighing the costs of disaster: Consequences, risks, and resilience in individuals, families, and communities. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 11(1), 1–49. doi:10.1177/1529100610387086.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bonanno, G. A., Westphal, M., & Mancini, A. D. (2011). Resilience to loss and potential trauma. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 7, 511–535. doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032210-104526.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boscarino, J. A. (1996). Posttraumatic stress disorder, exposure to combat, and lower plasma cortisol among Vietnam Veterans: Findings and clinical implications. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64(1), 191–201. doi:10.1037//0022-006X.64.1.191.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bravata, D. M., & Olkin, I. (2001). Simple pooling versus combining in meta-analysis. Evaluation and the Health Professions, 24(2), 218–230. doi:10.1177/01632780122034885.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Briere, J. (1996). Manual for the trauma symptom checklist for children. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, E. J., & Goodman, R. F. (2005). Childhood traumatic grief: An exploration of the construct in children bereaved on September 11. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 34(2), 248–259. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp3402_4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, E. J., McQuaid, J., Farina, L., Ali, R., & Winnick-Gelles, A. (2006). Matching interventions to children’s mental health needs: Feasibility and acceptability of a pilot school-based trauma intervention program. Education and Treatment of Children, 29(2), 257–286.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, E. J., Pearlman, M. Y., & Goodman, R. F. (2004). Facing fears and sadness: Cognitive-behavioral therapy for childhood traumatic grief. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 12(4), 187–198. doi:10.1080/10673220490509516.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bucker, J., Kapczinski, F., Post, R., Ceresèr, K. M., Szobot, C., Yatham, L. N., et al. (2012). Cognitive impairment in school-aged children with early trauma. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 53, 758–764. doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2011.12.006.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Burnham, J. J., Hooper, L. M., Edwards, E. E., Tippey, J. M., McRaney, A. C., Morrison, M. A., et al. (2008). Examining children’s fears in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina. Journal of Psychological Trauma, 7(4), 253–275. doi:10.1080/19322880802492229.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cain, D. S., Plummer, C. A., Fisher, R. M., & Bankston, T. Q. (2010). Weathering the storm: Persistent effects and psychological first aid with children displaced by Hurricane Katrina. Journal of Child and Adolescent Trauma, 3, 330–343. doi:10.1080/19361521.2010.523063.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Calderoni, M. E., Alderman, E. M., Silver, E. J., & Bauman, L. J. (2006). The mental health impact of 9/11 on inner-city high school students 20 miles north of Ground Zero. Journal of Adolescent Health, 39, 57–65. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2005.08.012.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Capaldi, D. M., & Rothbart, M. K. (1992). Development and validation of an early adolescent temperament measure. Journal of Early Adolescence, 12(2), 153–173. doi:10.1177/0272431692012002002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carrión, V. G., Garrett, A., Menon, V., Weems, C. F., & Reiss, A. L. (2008). Posttraumatic stress symptoms and brain function during a response-inhibition task: An fMRI study in youth. Depression and Anxiety, 25, 514–526.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carrión, V. G., Weems, C. F., & Bradley, T. (2010a). Natural disasters and the neurodevelopmental response to trauma in childhood: A brief overview and call to action. Future Neurology, 5(5), 667–674.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carrión, V. G., Weems, C. F., Eliez, S., Patwardhan, A., Brown, W., Ray, R. D., et al. (2001). Attenuation of frontal asymmetry in pediatric posttraumatic stress disorder. Society of Biological Psychiatry, 50, 943–951.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carrión, V. G., Weems, C. F., & Reiss, A. L. (2007). Stress predicts brain changes in children: A pilot longitudinal study on youth stress, posttraumatic stress disorder, and the hippocampus. Pediatrics, 119(3), 509–516. doi:10.1542/peds.2006-2028.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carrión, V. G., Weems, C. F., Richert, K., Hoffman, B. C., & Reiss, A. L. (2010b). Decreased prefrontal cortical volume associated with increased bedtime cortisol in traumatized youth. Biological Psychiatry, 68, 491–493. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.05.010.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carver, C. S. (1997). You want to measure coping but your protocol’s too long: Consider the brief COPE. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 4(1), 92–100. doi:10.1207/s15327558ijbm0401_6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Catani, C., Kohiladevy, M., Ruf, M., Schauer, E., Elbert, T., & Neuner, F. (2009). Treating children traumatized by war and Tsunami: A comparison between exposure therapy and meditation-relaxation in North-East Sri Lanka. BMC Psychiatry, 9(22), 1–11. doi:10.1186/1471-244X-9-22.

    Google Scholar 

  • CATS Consortium. (2010). Implementation of CBT for youth affected by the World Trade Center disaster: Matching need to treatment intensity and reducing trauma symptoms. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 23(6), 699–707. doi:10.1002/jts.20594.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chambless, D. L., & Hollon, S. D. (1998). Defining empirically supported therapies. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66(1), 7–18.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chemtob, C. M., Madan, A., Berger, P., & Abramovitz, R. (2011). Adolescent exposure to the World Trade Center attacks, PTSD symptomatology, and suicidal ideation. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 24(5), 526–529. doi:10.1002/jts.20670.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chemtob, C. M., Nomura, Y., & Abramovitz, R. A. (2008). Impact of conjoined exposure to the World Trade Center attacks and to other traumatic events on the behavioral problems of preschool children. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 162(2), 126–133. doi:10.1001/archpediatrics.2007.36.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chemtob, C. M., Nomura, Y., Josephson, L., Adams, R. E., & Sederer, L. (2009). Substance use and functional impairment among adolescents directly exposed to the 2001 World Trade Center attacks. Disasters, 33(3), 337–352. doi:10.1111/j.0361-3666.2008.01077.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chemtob, C. M., Nomura, Y., Rajendran, K., Yehuda, R., Schwartz, D., & Abramovitz, R. (2010). Impact of maternal posttraumatic stress disorder and depression following exposure to the September 11 attacks on preschool children’s behavior. Child Development, 81(4), 1129–1141. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01458.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cicchetti, D. V. (2003). Neuroendocrine functioning in maltreated children. In D. Cicchetti & E. Walker (Eds.), Neurodevelopmental mechanisms in psychopathology (pp. 345–365). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J. A., Jaycox, L. H., Walker, D. W., Mannarino, A. P., Langley, A. K., & DuClos, J. L. (2009). Treating traumatized children after Hurricane Katrina: Project Fleur-de Lis™. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 12, 55–64. doi:10.1007/s10567-009-0039-2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Comer, J. S., Fin, B., Duarte, C. S., Wu, P., Musa, G. J., Mandell, D. J., et al. (2010). Attack-related life disruption and child psychopathology in New York City Public schoolchildren—6 months post 9/11. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 39(4), 460–469. doi:10.1080/15374416.2010.486314.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Compas, B. E., Connor-Smith, J. K., Saltzman, H., Thompsen, A. H., & Wadsworth, M. E. (2001). Coping with stress during childhood and adolescence: Problems, progress, and potential in theory and research. Psychological Bulletin, 127(1), 87–127. doi:10.1037//0033-2909.101.3.393.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cook, A., Blaustein, M., Spinazzola, J., & van der Kolk, B. (Eds.). (2003).Complex trauma in children and adolescents. Los Angeles, CA: National Child Traumatic Stress Network. Retrieved from http://www.nctsnet.org/trauma-types/complex-trauma.

  • Cronbach, L. J. (1951). Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. Psychometrika, 16, 297–334. doi:10.1007/BF02310555.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cryder, C. H., Kilmer, R. P., Tedeschi, R. G., & Calhoun, L. G. (2006). An exploratory study of posttraumatic growth in children following a natural disaster. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 76(1), 65–69. doi:10.1037/0002-9432.76.1.65.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cubo, E., Velasco, S. S., Benito, V. D., Villaverde, V. A., Galan, J. M., Santidrian, A. M., et al. (2010). Psychometric attributes of the DISC Predictive Scales. Clinical Practice & Epidemiology in Mental Health, 6, 86–93. doi:10.2174/1745017901006010086.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dahl, R. E., Dorn, L., & Ryan, N. D. (1999). Sleep and neuroendocrine measures. In D. Shaffer, C. Lucas, & J. Richters (Eds.), Diagnostic assessment in child and adolescent psychopathology (pp. 321–334). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • De Bellis, M. D. (2001). Developmental traumatology: The psychobiological development of maltreated children and its implications for research, treatment, and policy. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 539–564. doi:10.1017/S0954579401003078.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • De Bellis, M. D., Keshavan, M. S., Clark, D. B., Casey, B. J., Giedd, J. N., Boring, A. M., et al. (1999). Developmental traumatology part II: Brain development. Biological Psychiatry, 45, 1271–1284. doi:10.1016/S0006-3223(99)00045-1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • De Young, A. C., Kenardy, J. A., & Spence, S. H. (2007). Elevated heart rate as a predictor of PTSD 6 months following accidental pediatric injury. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 20(4), 751–756. doi:10.1002/jts.20235.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Duarte, C. S., Hoven, C. W., Wu, P., Bin, F., Cotel, S., Mandell, D. J., et al. (2006). Posttraumatic stress in children with first responders in their families. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 19(2), 301–306. doi:10.1002/jts.20120.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Duarte, C. S., Wu, P., Cheung, A., Mandell, D. J., Fan, B., Wicks, J., et al. (2011). Media use by children and adolescents from New York City 6 months after the WTC attack. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 24(5), 553–556. doi:10.1002/jts.20687.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dunn, L. M., & Dunn, L. M. (1997). Peabody picture vocabulary test (3rd ed.). Circle Pines, Minnesota: American Guidance Service.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., Guthrie, I. K., & Reiser, M. (2000). Dispositional emotionality and regulation: Their role in predicting quality of social functioning. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78(1), 136–157. doi:10.1O37//0022-3514.78.1.136.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fairbrother, G., Stuber, J., Galea, S., Fleischman, A. R., & Pfefferbaum, B. (2003). Posttraumatic stress reactions in New York City children after the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks. Ambulatory Pediatrics, 3, 304–311. doi:10.1367/1539-4409(2003)003<0304:PSRINY>2.0.CO;2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fernando, G. A., Miller, K. E., & Berger, D. E. (2010). Growing pains: The impact of disaster-related and daily stressors on the psychological and psychosocial functioning of youth in Sri Lanka. Child Development, 81(4), 1192–1210. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01462.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Foa, E. B., Johnson, K. M., Feeny, N. C., & Treatwell, K. R. H. (2001). The Child PTSD Symptom Scale: A preliminary examination of its psychometric properties. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 30(3), 376–384. doi:10.1207/S15374424JCCP3003_9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Foa, E. B., Keane, T. M., & Friedman, M. J. (2000). Guidelines for treatment of PTSD. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 13(4), 539–588. doi:10.1023/A:1007802031411.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Foa, E. B., Keane, T. M., Friedman, M. J., & Cohen, J. A. (2009). Introduction. In E. B. Foa, T. M. Keane, M. J. Friedman, & J. A. Cohen (Eds.), Effective treatments for PTSD: Practice guidelines from the international society for traumatic stress studies (pp. 1–20). New York, NY: The Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Foa, E. B., & Meadows, E. A. (1997). Psychosocial treatments for posttraumatic stress disorder: A critical review. Annual Review Psychology, 48, 449–480. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.48.1.449.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fremont, W. P. (2004). Childhood reactions to terrorism-induced trauma: A review of the past 10 years. American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 43(4), 381–392. doi:10.1097/01.CHI.0000112484.08386.50.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Furr, J. M., Comer, J. S., Edmunds, J. M., & Kendall, P. C. (2010). Disasters and youth: A meta-analytic examination of posttraumatic stress. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 78(6), 765–780. doi:10.1037/a0021482.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Garrett, A. S., Carrión, V. G., Kletter, H., Karchemskiy, A., Weems, C. F., & Reiss, A. L. (2012). Brain activation to facial expressions in youth with PTSD symptoms. Depression and Anxiety, 29, 449–459. doi:10.1002/da.21892.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Garrett, A. L., Grant, M. A., Madrid, P., Brito, A., Abramson, D., & Redlener, I. (2007). Children and megadisasters: Lessons learned in the new millennium. Advances in Pediatrics, 54, 189–214. doi:10.1016/j.yapd.2007.03.011.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gil, T., Calev, A., Greenberg, D., Kugelmass, S., & Lerer, B. (1990). Cognitive functioning in post-traumatic stress disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 3(1), 29–45. doi:10.1002/jts.2490030104.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gilbertson, M. W., Gurvits, T. V., Lasko, N. B., Orr, S. P., & Pitman, R. K. (2001). Multivariate assessment of explicit memory function in combat veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 14(2), 413–432. doi:10.1023/A:1011181305501.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gil-Rivas, V., Silver, R. C., Holman, E. A., McIntosh, D. N., & Poulin, M. (2007). Parental response and adolescent adjustment to the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 20(6), 1063–1068. doi:10.1002/jts.20277.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gisev, N., Bell, J. S., & Chen, T. F. (2013). Interrater agreement and interrater reliability: Key concepts, approaches, and applications. Research in Social and Administrative Pharmacy, 9(3), 330–338. doi:10.1016/j.sapharm.2012.04.004.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goenjian, A. K., Yehuda, R., Pynoos, R. S., Steinberg, A. M., Tashjian, M., Yang, R. K., et al. (1996). Basal cortisol, dexamethasone suppression of cortisol, and MHPG in adolescents after the 1988 earthquake in Armenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 153(7), 929–934.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, R. (1997). The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire: A research note. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 38(5), 581–586.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gould, M. S., Munfakh, J. L., Kleinman, M., Lubell, K., & Provenzano, D. (2004). Impact of September 11th terrorist attacks on teenagers’ mental health. Applied Developmental Science, 8(3), 158–169. doi:10.1207/s1532480xads0803_5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gump, B. B., Reihman, J., Stewart, P., Lonky, E., & Darvill, T. (2005). Terrorism and cardiovascular responses to acute stress in children. Health Psychology, 24(6), 594–600. doi:10.1037/0278-6133.24.6.594.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gunnar, M. R., Talge, N. M., & Herrera, A. (2009). Stressor paradigms in developmental studies: What does and does not work to produce mean increases in salivary cortisol. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 34, 953–967. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2009.02.010.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Guttman, L. (1977). What is not what in statistics. The Statistician, 26(2), 81–107.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hafstad, G. S., Gil-Rivas, V., Kilmer, R. P., & Raeder, S. (2010). Parental adjustment, family functioning, and posttraumatic growth among Norwegian children and adolescents following a natural disaster. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 80(2), 248–257. doi:10.1111/j.1939-0025.2010.01028.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hafstad, G. S., Kilmer, R. P., & Gil-Rivas, V. (2011). Posttraumatic growth among Norwegian children and adolescents exposed to the 2004 Tsunami. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 3(2), 130–138. doi:10.1037/a0023236.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Halberstadt, A. G., Thompson, J. A., Parker, A. E., & Dunsmore, J. C. (2008). Parents’ emotion-related beliefs and behaviours in relation to children’s coping with the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks. Infant and Child Development, 17, 557–580. doi:10.1002/icd.569.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heim, C., Ehlert, U., & Hellhammer, D. H. (2000). The potential role of hypocortisolism in the pathophysiology of stress-related bodily disorders. Psychoneuroendocrinolgy, 25, 1–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heir, T., Piatigorsky, A., & Weisaeth, L. (2009). Longitudinal changes in recalled perceived life threat after a natural disaster. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 194, 510–514. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.108.056580.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hendricks, C., & Bornstein, M. H. (2007). Ecological analysis of early adolescents’ stress responses to 9/11 in the Washington, DC, area. Applied Developmental Science, 11(2), 71–88. doi:10.1080/10888690701384905.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Henry, D. B., Tolan, P. T., & Gorman-Smith, D. (2004). Have there been lasting effects associated with the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks among inner-city parents and children? Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 35(5), 542–547. doi:10.1037/0735-7028.35.5.542.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hensley, L., & Varela, R. E. (2008). PTSD symptoms and somatic complaints following Hurricane Katrina: The roles of trait anxiety and anxiety sensitivity. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 37(3), 542–552. doi:10.1080/15374410802148186.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hensley-Maloney, L., & Varela, R. E. (2009). The influence of hurricane exposure and anxiety sensitivity on panic symptoms. Child & Youth Care Forum, 38, 135–149. doi:10.1007/s10566-009-9072-z.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hestyanti, Y. R. (2006). Children survivors of the 2004 Tsunami in Aceh, Indonesia. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1094, 303–307. doi:10.1196/annals.1376.039.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holmbeck, G. N., Li, S. T., Schurman, J. V., Friedman, D., & Coakley, R. M. (2002). Collecting and managing multisource and multimethod data in studies of pediatric populations. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 27(1), 5–18.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Holmes, E. A., Creswell, C., & O’Connor, T. G. (2007). Posttraumatic stress symptoms in London school children following September 11, 2001: An exploratory investigation of peri-traumatic reactions and intrusive imagery. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 38, 474–490. doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2007.10.003.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Horton, N. J., & Fitzmaurice, G. M. (2004). Regression analysis of multiple source and multiple informant data from complex survey samples. Statistics in Medicine, 23, 2911–2933. doi:10.1002/sim.1879.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Horton, N. J., Laird, N. M., & Zahner, G. E. P. (1999). Use of multiple informant data as a predictor in psychiatric epidemiology. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 8(1), 6–18.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoven, C. W., Duarte, C. S., Lucas, C. P., Wu, P., Mandell, D. J., Goodwin, R. D., et al. (2005). Psychopathology among New York City public school children 6 months after September. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62, 545–552.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hoven, C. W., Duarte, C. S., & Wu, P. (2004). Exposure to trauma and separation anxiety in children after the WTC attack. Applied Developmental Science, 8(4), 172–183.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoven, C. W., Duarte, C. S., Wu, P., Doan, T., Singh, N., Mandell, D. J., et al. (2009). Parental exposure to mass violence and child mental health: The first responder and WTC evacuee study. Clinical Child Family Psychology Review, 12, 95–112. doi:10.1007/s10567-009-0047-2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoven, C. W., Mandell, D. J., Duarte, C. S., Wu, P., & Giordano, V. (2006). An epidemiological response to disaster: The post-9/11 psychological needs assessment of New York City public school students. In Y. Neria, R. Gross, & R. D. Marshall (Eds.), 9/11: Mental health in the wake of terrorist attacks (pp. 71–94). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Ironson, G., Wynings, C., Schneiderman, N., Baum, A., Rodriguez, M., Greenwood, D., et al. (1997). Posttraumatic stress symptoms, intrusive thoughts, loss, and immune function after Hurricane Andrew. Psychosomatic Medicine, 59, 128–141.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jaycox, L. H., Cohen, J. A., Mannarino, A. P., Walker, D. W., Langley, A. K., Gegenheimer, K. L., et al. (2010). Children’s mental health care following Hurricane Katrina: A field trial of trauma-focused psychotherapies. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 23(2), 223–231. doi:10.1002/jts.20518.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jensen, T. K., Dyb, G., & Nygaard, E. (2009). A longitudinal study of posttraumatic stress reactions in Norwegian children and adolescents exposed to the 2004 Tsunami. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 163(9), 856–861. doi:org/10.1001/archpediatrics.2009.151.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • John, P. B., Russell, S., & Russell, P. S. (2007). The prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder among children and adolescents affected by Tsunami disaster in Tamil Nadu. Disaster Management Response, 5, 3–7. doi:10.1016/j.dmr.2006.11.001.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Joshi, P. T., & O’Donnell, D. A. (2003). Consequences of child exposure to war and terrorism. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 6(4), 275–292. doi:10.1023/B:CCFP.0000006294.88201.68.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kassam-Adams, N., Garcia-Espana, F., Fein, J. A., & Winston, F. K. (2005). Heart rate and posttraumatic stress in injured children. Archives General Psychiatry, 62, 335–340. doi:10.1023/B:CCFP.0000006294.88201.68.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kazdin, A. E. (2003). Research design in clinical psychology. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kelley, M. L., Self-Brown, S., Le, B., Bosson, J. V., Hernandez, B. C., & Gordon, A. T. (2010). Predicting posttraumatic stress symptoms in children following Hurricane Katrina: A prospective analysis of the effect of parental distress and parenting practices. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 23(5), 582–590. doi:10.1002/jts.20573.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kennedy, C., Charlesworth, A., & Chen, J. (2004). Disaster at a distance: Impact of 9.11.01 televised new coverage on mothers’ and children’s health. Journal of Pediatric Nursing, 19(5), 329–339. doi:10.1016/j.pedn.2004.09.003.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kessler, R. C., Keane, T. M., Ursano, R. J., Mokdad, A., & Zaslavsky, A. M. (2008). Sample and design considerations in post-disaster mental health needs assessment tracking surveys. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 17(S2), S6–S20. doi:10.1002/mpr.269.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kilmer, R. P., & Gil-Rivas, V. (2010). Exploring posttraumatic growth in children impacted by Hurricane Katrina: Correlates of the phenomenon and developmental considerations. Child Development, 81(4), 1211–1227. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01463.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kilmer, R. P., Gil-Rivas, V., Tedeschi, R. G., Cann, A., Calhoun, L. G., Buchanan, T., et al. (2009). Use of the revised posttraumatic growth inventory for children. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 22(3), 248–253. doi:10.1002/jts.20410.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Klein, T. P., DeVoe, E. R., Miranda-Julian, C., & Linas, K. (2009). Young children’s responses to September 11th: The New York City experience. Infant Mental Health Journal, 30(1), 1–22. doi:10.1002/imhj.20200.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Korkman, M., Kirk, U., & Kemp, S. (1998). NEPSY: A developmental neuropsychological assessment. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kovacs, M. (1985). The children’s depression inventory (CDI). Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 21(4), 995–998.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kraemer, H. C., Measelle, J. R., Ablow, J. C., Essex, M. J., Boyce, W. T., & Kupfer, D. J. (2003). A new approach to integrating data from multiple informants in psychiatric assessment and research: Mixing and matching contexts and perspectives. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 1566–1577. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.160.9.1566.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kronenberg, M. E., Hansel, T. C., Brennan, A. M., Osofsky, H. J., Osofsky, J. D., & Lawrason, B. (2010). Children of Katrina: Lessons learned about postdisaster symptoms and recovery patterns. Child Development, 81(4), 1241–1259. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01465.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • La Greca, A. M., & Silverman, W. K. (2009). Treatment and prevention of posttraumatic stress reactions in children and adolescents exposed to disasters and terrorism: What is the evidence? Society for Research in Child Development, 3(1), 4–10.

    Google Scholar 

  • La Greca, A. M., Silverman, W. K., Vernberg, E. M., & Roberts, M. C. (2002). Children and disasters: Future directions for research and public policy. In A. M. La Greca, W. K. Silverman, E. M. Vernberg, & M. C. Roberts (Eds.), Helping children cope with disasters and terrorism (pp. 405–423). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • La Greca, A. M., Vernberg, E. M., Silverman, W. K., & Prinstein, M. J. (1996). Symptoms of posttraumatic stress in children after Hurricane Andrew: A prospective study. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64(4), 712–723. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.64.4.712.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Landis, J. R., & Koch, G. G. (1977). The measurement of observer agreement for categorical data. Biometrics, 33, 159–174. doi:10.2307/2529310.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Landrigan, P. J., Forman, J., Galvez, M., Newman, B., Engel, S. M., & Chemtob, C. (2008). Impact of September 11 World Trade Center disaster on children and pregnant women. Mount Sinai Journal of Medicine, 75, 129–134. doi:10.1002/msj.20032.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lazarus, R. S. (1993). Coping theory and research: Past, present, and future. Psychosomatic Medicine, 55, 234–247.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. New York, NY: Springer Publishing Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leitch, M. L. (2007). Somatic experiencing treatment with Tsunami survivors in Thailand: Broadening the scope of early intervention. Traumatology, 13(3), 11–20. doi:10.1177/1534765607305439.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lengua, L. J., Long, A. C., & Meltzoff, A. N. (2006). Pre-attack stress-load, appraisals, and coping in children’s responses to the 9/11 terrorist attacks. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47(12), 1219–1227. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01664.x.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lengua, L. J., Long, A. C., Smith, K. I., & Meltzoff, A. N. (2005). Pre-attack symptomatology and temperament as predictors of children’s responses to the September 11 terrorist attacks. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46(6), 631–645. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00378.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leung, P. W. L., Lucas, C. P., Hung, S., Kwong, S., Tang, C., Lee, C., et al. (2005). The test-retest reliability and screening efficiency of DISC Predictive Scales-version 4.32 (DPS-4.32) with Chinese children/youths. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 14(8), 461–465. doi:10.1007/s00787-005-0503-6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Levine, L. J., Whalen, C. K., Henker, B., & Jamner, L. D. (2005). Looking back on September 11, 2001: Appraised impact and memory for emotions in adolescents and adults. Journal of Adolescent Research, 20(4), 497–523. doi:10.1177/0743558405274893.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lindstrom, K. M., Mandell, D. J., Musa, G. J., Britton, J. C., Sankin, L. S., Mogg, K., et al. (2011). Attention orientation in parents exposed to the 9/11 terrorist attacks and their children. Psychiatry Research, 187, 261–266. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2010.09.005.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Loeber, R., & Farrington, D. P. (1994). Problems and solutions in longitudinal and experimental treatment studies of child psychopathology and delinquency. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62(5), 887–900. doi:10.1037//0022-006X.62.5.887.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Loumeau-May, L. V. (2008). Grieving in the public eye: Art therapy with children who lost parents in the World Trade Center attacks. In C. Malchiodi (Ed.), Creative interventions with traumatized children. New York, NY: Guilford Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lucas, C. P., Zhang, H., Fisher, P. W., Shaffer, D., Regier, D. A., Narrow, W. E., et al. (2001). The DISC Predictive Scales (DPS): Efficiently screening for diagnoses. Journal of the Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40(4), 443–449. doi:10.1097/00004583-200104000-00013.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lutz, W. J., Hock, E., & Kang, M. J. (2007). Children’s communication about distressing events: The role of emotional openness and psychological attributes of family members. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 77(1), 86–94. doi:10.1037/0002-9432.77.1.86.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Madkour, A. S., Johnson, C. C., Clum, G. A., & Brown, L. (2011). Disaster and youth violence: The experience of school-attending youth in New Orleans. Journal of Adolescent Health, 49, 213–215. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2011.06.005.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Makel, M. C., Plucker, J. A., & Hegarty, B. (2012). Replications in psychology research: How often do they really occur? Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7(6), 537–542. doi:10.1177/1745691612460688.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Malin, A. M., & Fowers, B. J. (2004). Adolescent’s reactions to the World Trade Center destruction: A study of political trauma in metropolitan New York. Current Psychology: Developmental Learning Personality Social, 23(1), 77–85. doi:10.1007/s12144-004-1010-5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Masten, A. S. (2007). Resilience in developing systems: Progress and promise as the fourth wave rises. Development and Psychopathology, 19, 921–930.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Masten, A. S., & Narayan, A. J. (2012). Child development in the context of disaster, war, and terrorism: Pathways of risk and resilience. Annual Review of Psychology, 63, 227–257.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Math, S. B., Tandon, S., Girimaji, S. C., Benegal, V., Kumar, U., Hamza, A., et al. (2008). Psychological impact of the Tsunami on children and adolescents from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Primary Care Companion to the Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 10, 31–37.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McLaughlin, K. A., Fairbank, J. A., Gruber, M. J., Jones, R. T., Lakoma, M. D., Pfefferbaum, B., et al. (2009). Serious emotional disturbance among youths exposed to Hurricane Katrina 2 years postdisaster. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 48(11), 1069–1078. doi:10.1097/CHI.0b013e3181b76697.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McNally, R. J. (2003). Progress and controversy in the study of posttraumatic stress disorder. Annual Review of Psychology, 54(1), 229–252.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Meiser-Stedman, R., Smith, P., Bryant, R., Salmon, K., Yule, W., Dalgleish, T., et al. (2009). Development and validation of the Child Post-Traumatic Cognitions Inventory (CPTCI). Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50(4), 432–440. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.01995.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Milam, J., Ritt-Olson, A., Tan, S., Unger, J., & Nezami, E. (2005). The September 11th 2001 terrorist attacks and reports of posttraumatic growth among a multi-ethnic sample of adolescents. Traumatology, 11(4), 233–246. doi:10.1177/153476560501100404.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, J., & Schwarz, W. (2011). Aggregate and individual replication probability within an explicit model of the research process. Psychological Methods, 16(3), 337–360. doi:10.1037/a0023347.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moore, K. W., & Varela, R. E. (2010). Correlates of long-term posttraumatic stress symptoms in children following Hurricane Katrina. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 41, 239–250. doi:10.1007/s10578-009-0165-6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Myers, K., & Winters, N. C. (2002). Ten-year review of rating scales. I: Overview of scale functioning, psychometric properties, and selection. American Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 41(2), 114–122.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nader, K. (2008). Understanding and assessing trauma in children and adolescents: Measures, methods, and youth in context. New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nock, M. K., Janis, I. B., & Wedig, M. M. (2008). Research designs. In A. M. Nezu & C. Maguth-Nezu (Eds.), Evidence-based outcome research: A practical guide to conducting randomized controlled trials for psychosocial interventions (pp. 201–218). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Noppe, I. C., Noppe, L. D., & Bartell, D. (2006). Terrorism and resilience: Adolescents’ and teachers’ responses to September 11, 2001. Death Studies, 30, 41–60. doi:10.1080/07481180500348761.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Norris, F. H. (2006). Disaster research methods: Past progress and future directions. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 19(2), 173–184. doi:10.1002/jts.20109.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Norris, F. H., Friedman, M. J., Watson, P. J., Byrne, C. M., Diaz, E., & Kaniasty, K. (2002). 60,000 disaster victims speak: Part I. An empirical review of the empirical literature, 1981–2001. Psychiatry, 65(3), 207–239. doi:10.1521/psyc.65.3.207.20173.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • North, C. S., & Norris, F. H. (2006). Choosing research methods to match research goals in studies of disaster or terrorism. In F. H. Norris, S. Galea, M. J. Friedman, & P. J. Watson (Eds.), Methods for disaster mental health research (pp. 45–61). New York, NY: The Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • North, C. S., & Pfefferbaum, B. (2002). Research on the mental health effects of terrorism. Journal of the American Medical Association, 288(5), 633–636. doi:10.1001/jama.288.5.633.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nugent, N. R., Christopher, N. C., & Delahanty, D. L. (2006). Emergency medical service and in-hospital vital signs as predictors of subsequent PTSD symptom severity in pediatric injury patients. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47(9), 919–926.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nygaard, E., Jensen, T. K., & Dyb, G. (2010). Posttraumatic stress reactions in siblings after mutual disaster: Relevance of family factors. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 23(2), 278–281. doi:10.1002/jts.20511.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Olteanu, A., Arnberger, R., Grant, R., Davis, C., Abramson, D., & Asola, J. (2011). Persistence of mental health needs among children affected by Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans. Prehospital and Disaster Medicine, 26(1), 3–6. doi:10.1017/S1049023X10000099.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Osofsky, H. J., Osofsky, J. D., Kronenberg, M., Brennan, A., & Hansel, T. C. (2009). Posttraumatic stress symptoms in children after Hurricane Katrina: Predicting the need for mental health services. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 79(2), 212–220. doi:10.1037/a0016179.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Otto, M. W., Henin, A., Hirshfeld-Becker, D. R., Pollack, M. H., Biederman, J., & Rosenbaum, J. F. (2007). Posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms following media exposure to tragic events: Impact of 9/11 on children at risk for anxiety disorders. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 21, 888–902. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2006.10.008.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Overstreet, S., Salloum, A., & Badour, C. (2010). A school-based assessment of secondary stressors and adolescent mental health 18 months post-Katrina. Journal of School Psychology, 48, 413–431. doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2010.06.002.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Paasivirta, M. E., Duarte, C. S., Wu, P., Bin, F., Goodman, R. F., Brown, E. J., et al. (2010). Factor structure of the Youth Coping in Traumatic Times (YCITT) scale. Psychiatry Research, 179, 357–362. doi:10.1016/j.psychres2009.03.018.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Patton, M. Q. (2002). Designing qualitative studies. Qualitative research and evaluation methods (pp. 209–257). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pfeffer, C. R., Altemus, M., Heo, M., & Jiang, H. (2007). Salivary cortisol and psychopathology in children bereaved by the September 11, 2001 terror attacks. Society of Biological Psychiatry, 61, 957–965. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.07.037.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pfefferbaum, B., Jacobs, A. K., & Houston, J. B. (2012a). Children and disasters: A framework for mental health assessment. Journal of Emergency Management, 10(5), 349–358. doi:10.5055/jem.2012.0112.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pfefferbaum, B., Newman, E., Nelson, S. D., Liles, B. D., Tett, R. P., Varma, V., et al. (submitted). Research methodology used in child disaster mental health intervention studies. Comprehensive Psychiatry.

  • Pfefferbaum, B., Nixon, S. J., Tivis, R. D., Doughty, D. E., Pynoos, R. S., Gurwitch, R. H., et al. (2001). Television exposure in children after a terrorist incident. Psychiatry, 64(3), 202–211. doi:10.1521/psyc.64.3.202.18462.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pfefferbaum, B., Noffsinger, M. A., & Wind, L. H. (2012b). Issues in the assessment of children’s coping in the context of mass trauma. Prehospital and Disaster Medicine, 27(3), 272–279. doi:10.1017/S1049023X12000702.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pfefferbaum, B., North, C. S., Pollio, D. E., Wallace, N. E., & Jeon-Slaughter, H. (2006a). Adolescents discuss their reactions to the September 11 attacks. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 11, 425–438. doi:10.1080/15325020600719201.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pfefferbaum, B., North, C. S., Pollio, D. E., Wallace, N. E., Smith, R., & Jeon-Slaughter, H. (2007). Focus groups with children after the World Trade Center attacks. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 12, 349–363. doi:10.1080/15325020701296828.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pfefferbaum, B., Seale, T. W., Brandt, E. N., Pfefferbaum, R. L., Doughty, D. E., & Rainwater, S. M. (2003). Media exposure in children one hundred miles from a terrorist bombing. Annals of Clinical Psychiatry, 15(1), 1–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pfefferbaum, B., Stuber, J., Galea, S., & Fairbrother, G. (2006b). Panic reactions to terrorist attacks and probable posttraumatic stress disorder in adolescents. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 19(2), 217–228. doi:10.1002/jts.20118.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pfefferbaum, B., Tucker, P., North, C. S., & Jeon-Slaughter, H. (2011). Physiological reactivity in children of Oklahoma City bombing survivors 7 years postdisaster: A pilot study. Annals of Clinical Psychiatry, 23(3), 202–207.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pina, A. A., Villalta, I. K., Ortiz, C. D., Gottschall, A. C., Costa, N. M., & Weems, C. F. (2008). Social support, discrimination, and coping as predictors of posttraumatic stress reactions in youth survivors of Hurricane Katrina. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 37(3), 564–574. doi:10.1080/15374410802148228.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Piyasil, V., Ketuman, P., Prubrukarn, R., Jotipanut, V., Tanprasert, S., Aowjinda, S., et al. (2007). Post traumatic stress disorder in children after Tsunami disaster in Thailand: 2 years follow-up. Journal of the Medical Association of Thailand, 90(11), 2370–2376.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Plummer, A. A., Cain, D. S., Fisher, R. M., & Bankston, T. Q. (2009). Practice challenges in using psychological first aid in a group format with children: A pilot study. Brief Treatment and Crisis Intervention, 8, 313–326. doi:10.1093/brief-treatment/mhn019.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Porges, S. W. (2007). The polyvagal perspective. Biological Psychology, 74, 116–143.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pynoos, R. S., & Nader, K. (1989). Children’s memory and proximity to violence. American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 28(2), 236–241.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1(3), 385–401. doi:10.1177/014662167700100306.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rath, B., Donato, J., Duggan, A., Perrin, K., Bronfin, D. R., Ratard, R., et al. (2007). Adverse health outcomes after Hurricane Katrina among children and adolescents with chronic conditions. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Undeserved, 18, 405–417. doi:10.1353/hpu.2007.0043.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ray, M., & Malhi, P. (2005). Reactions of Indian adolescents to the 9/11 terrorist attacks. Indian Journal of Pediatrics, 72(3), 217–221. doi:org/10.1007/BF02859259.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Resick, P. A., Monson, C. M., & Gutner, C. (2007). Psychosocial treatments for PTSD. In M. J. Friedman, T. M. Keane, & P. A. Resick (Eds.), Handbook of PTSD: Science and practice (pp. 330–358). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, C. R., & Kamphaus, R. W. (1992). Behavior Assessment System for Children. Circle Pines, MN: AGS Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, C. R., & Kamphaus, R. W. (2004). Behavior Assessment System for Children (2nd ed.). Circle Pines, MN: AGS Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, C. R., & Richmond, B. O. (1985). Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale. RCMAS manual. Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, Y. H., Mitchell, M. J., Witman, M., & Taffaro, C. (2010). Mental health symptoms in youth affected by Hurricane Katrina. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 41(1), 10–18. doi:10.1037/a0018339.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosen, C. S., & Cohen, M. (2010). Subgroups of New York City children at high risk of PSTD after the September 11 attacks: A signal detection analysis. Psychiatric Services, 61(1), 64–69. doi:10.1176/appi.ps.61.1.64.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenthal, R., & Rosnow, R. L. (2008). Essentials of behavioral research: Methods and data analysis (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roussos, A., Goenjian, A. K., Steinberg, A. M., Sotiropoulou, C., Kakaki, M., Kabakos, C., et al. (2005). Posttraumatic stress and depressive reactions among children and adolescents after the 1999 earthquake in Ano Liosia, Greece. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162, 530–537. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.162.3.530.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rowe, D. C., & Kandel, D. (1997). In the eye of the beholder? Parental ratings of externalizing and internalizing symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 25(4), 265–275.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Salloum, A., & Lewis, M. L. (2010). An exploratory study of African American parent—child coping strategies post-Hurricane Katrina. Traumatology, 16(1), 31–41. doi:10.1177/1534765609348240.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Salloum, A., & Overstreet, S. (2008). Evaluation of individual and group grief and trauma interventions for children post disaster. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 37(3), 495–507. doi:10.1080/15374410802148194.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Salloum, A., & Overstreet, S. (2012). Grief and trauma intervention for children after disaster: Exploring coping skills versus trauma narration. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 50, 169–179. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2012.01.001.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Salmond, C. H., Mesier-Stedman, R., Glucksman, E., Thompson, P., Dalgleish, T., & Smith, P. (2011). The nature of trauma memories in acute stress disorder in children and adolescents. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52(5), 560–570. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02340.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Saltzman, K. M., Weems, C. F., & Carrión, V. G. (2006). IQ and posttraumatic stress symptoms in children exposed to interpersonal violence. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 36(3), 261–272. doi:10.1007/s10578-005-0002-5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Saylor, C. F., Cowart, B. L., Lipovsky, J. A., Jackson, C., & Finch, A. J. (2003). Media exposure to September 11: Elementary school students’ experiences and posttraumatic symptoms. American Behavioral Scientist, 46(12), 1622–1642. doi:10.1177/0002764203254619.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Saylor, C., & Deroma, V. (2002). Assessment of children and adolescents exposed to disaster. In A. M. La Greca, W. K. Silverman, E. M. Vernberg, & M. C. Roberts (Eds.), Helping children cope with disasters and terrorism (pp. 35–53). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Scheeringa, M. S., Weems, C. F., Cohen, J. A., Amaya-Jackson, L., & Guthrie, D. (2011). Trauma-focused cognitive-behavior therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder in three-through 6 year-old children: A randomized clinical trial. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52(8), 853–860. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02354.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scheeringa, M. S., & Zeanah, C. H. (2008). Reconsideration of harm’s way: Onsets and comorbidity patterns of disorders in preschool children and their caregivers following Hurricane Katrina. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 37(3), 508–518. doi:10.1080/15374410802148178.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scheeringa, M. S., Zeanah, C. H., Myers, L., & Putnam, F. (2004). Heart period and variability findings in preschool children with posttraumatic stress symptoms. Society of Biological Psychiatry, 55, 685–691. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.01.006.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schlenger, W. E., Caddell, J. M., Ebert, L., Jordan, B. K., Rourke, K. M., Wilson, D., et al. (2002). Psychological reactions to terrorist attacks: Findings from the national study of Americans’ reactions to September 11. Journal of the American Medical Association, 88(5), 581–588. doi:0.1001/jama.288.5.581.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schuster, M. A., Stein, B. D., Jaycox, L. H., Collins, R. L., Marshall, G. N., Elliott, M. N., et al. (2001). A national survey of stress reactions after the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks. The New England Journal of Medicine, 345(20), 1507–1512. doi:10.1056/NEJM200111153452024.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shaffer, D., Fisher, P., Lucas, C. P., Dulcan, M. K., & Schwab-Stone, M. E. (2000). NIMH Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children Version IV (NIMH DISC-IV): Description, differences from previous versions, and reliability of some common diagnoses. American Journal of Academic Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39(1), 28–38. doi:10.1097/00004583-199607000-00012.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sheets, V., Sandler, I., & West, S. G. (1996). Appraisals of negative events by preadolescent children of divorce. Child Development, 67, 2166–2182. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1996.tb01850.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shirtcliff, E. A., Granger, D. A., Schwartz, E., & Curran, M. J. (2001). Use of salivary biomarkers in biobehavioral research: Cotton-based sample collection methods can interfere with salivary immunoassay results. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 26(2), 165–173. doi:10.1016/S0306-4530(00)00042-1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Silverman, W. K., & La Greca, A. M. (2002). Children experiencing disasters: Definitions, reactions, and predictors of outcomes. In A. M. La Greca, W. K. Silverman, E. M. Vernberg, & M. C. Roberts (Eds.), Helping children cope with disasters and terrorism (pp. 11–33). Washington, DC.: American Psychological Association.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Silverman, W. K., & Ollendick, T. H. (2005). Evidence-based assessment of anxiety and its disorders in children and adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 34(3), 380–411. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp3403_2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Silverman, W. K., Ortiz, C. D., Viswesvaran, C., Burns, B. J., Kolko, D. J., Putnam, F. W., et al. (2008). Evidence-based psychosocial treatments for children and adolescents exposed to traumatic events. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 37(1), 156–183. doi:10.1080/15374410701817907.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, T. M. F. (1983). On the validity of inferences from non-random samples. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, 146(4), 394–403.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, P., Yule, W., Perrin, S., Tranah, T., Dalgleish, T., & Clark, D. M. (2007). Cognitive-behavioral therapy for PTSD in children and adolescents: A preliminary randomized controlled trial. American Journal of Academic Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 46(8), 1051–1061. doi:10.1097/CHI.0b013e318067e288.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Southwick, S. M., Morgan, C. A., Nicolaou, A. L., & Charney, D. S. (1997). Consistency of memory for combat-related traumatic events in veterans of Operation Desert Storm. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154(2), 173–177.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spann, M. N., Mayes, L. C., Kalmar, J. H., Guiney, J., Womer, F. Y., Pittman, B., et al. (2012). Childhood abuse and neglect and cognitive flexibility in adolescents. Child Neuropsychology, 18(2), 182–189.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spell, A. W., Kelley, M. L., Wang, J., Self-Brown, S., Davidson, K. L., Pellegrin, A., et al. (2008). The moderating effects of maternal psychopathology on children’s adjustment post-Hurricane Katrina. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 37(3), 553–563. doi:10.1080/15374410802148210.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spielberger, C. D. (1973). Manual for the state–trait anxiety inventory for children. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spirito, A., Stark, L. J., & Williams, C. (1988). Development of a brief coping checklist for use with pediatric populations. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 13(4), 555–574. doi:10.1093/jpepsy/13.4.555.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sprung, M. (2008). Unwanted intrusive thoughts and cognitive functioning in kindergarten and young elementary school-age children following Hurricane Katrina. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 37(3), 575–587. doi:10.1080/15374410802148236.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sprung, M., & Harris, P. L. (2010). Intrusive thoughts and young children’s knowledge about thinking following a natural disaster. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51(10), 1115–1124. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02273.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stallard, P. (2006). Psychological interventions for post-traumatic reactions in children and young people: A review of randomised controlled trials. Clinical Psychology Review, 26, 895–911. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2005.09.005.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stein, B. D., Jaycox, L. H., Elliott, M. N., Collins, R., Berry, S., Marshall, G. N., et al. (2004). The emotional and behavioral impact of terrorism on children: Results from a national survey. Applied Developmental Science, 8(4), 184–194. doi:10.1207/s1532480xads0804_2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stein, M. B., Yehuda, R., Koverola, C., & Hanna, C. (1997). Enhanced dexamethasone suppression of plasma cortisol in adult women traumatized by childhood sexual abuse. Society of Biological Psychiatry, 42, 680–686. doi:10.1016/S0006-3223(96)00489-1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steinberg, A. M., Brymer, M. J., Decker, K. B., & Pynoos, R. S. (2004). The University of California at Los Angeles post-traumatic stress disorder reaction index. Current Psychiatry Reports, 6, 96–100.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Steinberg, A. M., Brymer, M. J., Kim, S., Briggs, E. C., Ippen, C. G., Ostrowski, S. A., et al. (2013). Psychometric properties of the UCLA PTSD reaction index: Part I. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 26, 1–9. doi:10.1002/jts.21780.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Steinmetz, K. R. M., Scott, L. A., Smith, D., & Kensinger, E. A. (2012). The effects of trauma exposure and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) on the emotion-induced memory trade-off. Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience, 6(34), 1–11.

    Google Scholar 

  • Streiner, D. L. (2003). Starting at the beginning: An introduction to coefficient alpha and internal consistency. Journal of Personality Assessment, 80(1), 99–103. doi:10.1207/S15327752JPA8001_18.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stuber, J., Fairbrother, G., Galea, S., Pfefferbaum, B., Wilson-Genderson, M., & Vlahov, D. (2002). Determinants of counseling for children in Manhattan after the September 11 attacks. Psychiatric Services, 53(7), 815–822. doi:10.1176/appi.ps.53.7.815.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Susman, E. J., Dockray, S., Schiefelbein, V. L., Herwehe, S., Heaton, J. A., & Dorn, L. D. (2007). Morningness/Eveningness, morning-to-afternoon cortisol ratio, and antisocial behavior problems during puberty. Developmental Psychology, 43(4), 811–822. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.43.4.811.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, L. K., & Weems, C. F. (2011). Cognitive-behavior therapy for disaster-exposed youth with posttraumatic stress: Results from a multiple-baseline examination. Behavior Therapy, 42, 349–363. doi:10.1016/j.beth.2010.09.001.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Terranova, A. M., Boxer, P., & Morris, A. S. (2009). Factors influencing the course of posttraumatic stress following a natural disaster: Children’s reactions to Hurricane Katrina. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 30, 344–355. doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2008.12.017.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thienkrua, W., Cardozo, B. L., Chakkraband, M. L. S., Guadamuz, T. E., Pengjuntr, W., Tantipiwatanaskul, P., et al. (2006). Symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder and depression among children in Tsunami-affected areas in Southern Thailand. Journal of the American Medical Association, 296(5), 549–559. doi:10.1001/jama.296.5.549.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tucker, P., Jeon-Slaughter, H., Pfefferbaum, B., Khan, Q., & Davis, N. J. (2010). Emotional and biological stress measures in Katrina survivors relocated to Oklahoma. American Journal of Disaster Medicine, 5(2), 186–195.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ursano, R. J., Bell, C., Eth, S., Friedman, M., Norwood, A., Pfefferbaum, B., et al. (2004). Practice guideline for the treatment of patients with acute stress disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 161(11), 3–31. doi:10.1176/appi.books.9780890423363.52257.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, Office of Drug Evaluation. (1988). Guideline for the format and content of the clinical and statistical sections of an application. Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Dulmen, M. H. M., & Egeland, B. (2011). Analyzing multiple informant data on child and adolescent behavior problems: Predictive validity and comparison of aggregation procedures. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 35(1), 84–92. doi:10.1177/0165025410392112.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vasterling, J. J., Brailey, K., Constans, J. I., Brailey, K., & Sutker, P. B. (1998). Attention and memory dysfunction in posttraumatic stress disorder. Neuropsychology, 12(1), 125–133.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vasterling, J. J., Duke, L. M., Brailey, K., Constans, J. I., Allain, A. N., & Stuker, P. B. (2002). Attention, learning, and memory performances and intellectual resources in Vietnam veterans: PTSD and no disorder comparisons. Neuropsychology, 16(1), 5–14. doi:10.1037//0894-4105.16.1.5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vigil, J. M., Carle, A. C., Geary, D. C., Granger, D. A., Flinn, M. V., & Pendleton, P. (2009). Maternal correlates of children’s stress functioning following a major natural disaster. Journal of Child and Adolescent Trauma, 2, 287–296. doi:10.1080/19361520903317337.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vigil, J. M., & Geary, D. C. (2008). A preliminary investigation of family coping styles and psychological well-being among adolescent survivors of Hurricane Katrina. Journal of Family Psychology, 22(1), 176–180. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.22.1.176.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vigil, J. M., & Geary, D. C. (2009). An exploratory analysis of family coping styles and psychobiological distress among adolescents affected by a large-scale disaster. Journal of Child and Adolescent Trauma, 2, 81–89. doi:10.1080/19361520902861905.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vigil, J. M., Geary, D. C., Granger, D. A., & Flinn, M. V. (2010). Sex differences in salivary cortisol, alpha-amylase, and psychological functioning following Hurricane Katrina. Child Development, 81(4), 1228–1240. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01464.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vigna, J. F., Hernandez, B. C., & Kelley, M. L. (2009). Predicting conduct problems from community and family violence: The moderating effects of Hurricane Katrina. Journal of Family Violence, 24, 597–605. doi:10.1007/s10896-009-9258-z.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vigna, J. F., Hernandez, B. C., Kelley, M. L., & Gresham, F. M. (2010). Coping behavior in hurricane-affected African American youth: Psychometric properties of Kidcope. Journal of Black Psychology, 36(1), 98–121. doi:10.1177/0095798408329948.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vijayakumar, L., Kannan, G. K., Kumar, B. G., & Devarajan, P. (2006). Do all children need intervention after exposure to Tsunami? International Review of Psychiatry, 18(6), 515–522. doi:10.1080/09540260601039876.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wadsworth, M. E., Gudmundsen, G. R., Raviv, T., Ahlkvist, J. A., McIntosh, D. N., Kline, G. H., et al. (2004). Coping with terrorism: Age and gender differences in effortful and involuntary responses to September 11th. Applied Developmental Science, 8(3), 143–157. doi:10.1207/s1532480xads0803_4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wagner, S. M., Rau, C., & Lindemann, E. (2010). Multiple informant methodology: A critical review and recommendations. Social Methods and Research, 38(4), 582–618. doi:10.1177/0049124110366231.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ward, M. E., Shelley, K., Kaase, K., & Pane, J. F. (2008). Hurricane Katrina: A longitudinal study of the achievement and behavior of displaced students. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk, 13, 297–317. doi:10.1080/10824660802350391.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weems, C. F. (2010). Hurricane Katrina and the need for changes in the federal funding of disaster mental health. American Journal of Disaster Medicine, 5, 57–59.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weems, C. F., & Carrión, V. G. (2007). The association between PTSD symptoms and salivary cortisol in youth: The role of time since the trauma. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 20(5), 903–907. doi:10.1002/jts.20251.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weems, C. F., & Carrión, V. G. (2009). Brief report: Diurnal salivary cortisol in youth-clarifying the nature of posttraumatic stress dysregulation. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 34(4), 389–395. doi:10.1093/jpepsy/jsn087.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weems, C. F., & Overstreet, S. (2008). Child and adolescent mental health research in the context of Hurricane Katrina: An ecological needs-based perspective and introduction to the special section. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 37(3), 487–494. doi:10.1080/15374410802148251.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weems, C. F., Pina, A. A., Costa, N. M., Watts, S. E., Taylor, L. K., & Cannon, M. F. (2007). Pre disaster trait anxiety and negative affect predict posttraumatic stress in youth after Hurricane Katrina. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 75(1), 154–159. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.75.1.154.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weems, C. F., Scott, B. G., Taylor, L. K., Cannon, M. F., Romano, D. M., & Perry, A. M. (2013). A theoretical model of continuity in anxiety and links to academic achievement in disaster exposed school children. Development and Psychopathology, 25, 729–738. doi:10.1017/S0954579413000138.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weems, C. F., Taylor, L. K., Cannon, M. F., Marino, R. C., Romano, D. M., Scott, B. G., et al. (2010). Post traumatic stress, context, and the lingering effects of the Hurricane Katrina disaster among ethnic minority youth. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 38, 49–56. doi:10.1007/s10802-009-9352-y.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weems, C. F., Taylor, L. K., Costa, N. M., Marks, A. B., Romano, D. M., Verrett, S. L., et al. (2009). Effect of a school-based test anxiety intervention in ethnic minority youth exposed to Hurricane Katrina. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 30, 218–226.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weems, C. F., Zakem, A. H., Costa, N. M., Cannon, M. F., & Watts, S. E. (2005). Physiological response and childhood anxiety: Association with symptoms of anxiety disorders and cognitive bias. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 34(4), 712–723. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp3404_13.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weiss, D. S., & Marmar, C. R. (1997). The impact of event scale-revised. In J. Wilson & T. Keane (Eds.), Assessing psychological trauma and PTSD. New York, NY: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whalen, C. K., Henker, B., King, P. S., Jamner, L. D., & Levine, L. (2004). Adolescents react to the events of September 11, 2001: Focused versus ambient impact. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 32(1), 1–11. doi:10.1023/B:JACP.0000007576.94501.a0.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • White, A., & Ernst, E. (2001). The case for uncontrolled clinical trials: A starting point for the evidence base for CAM. Complementary Theories in Medicine, 9, 111–115.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wiguna, T., Guerrero, A. P., Kaligis, F., & Khamelia, M. (2010). Psychiatric morbidity among children in North Aceh district (Indonesia) exposed to the 26 December 2004 Tsunami. Asia-Pacific Psychiatry, 2, 151–155. doi:10.1111/j.1758-5872.2010.00079.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilkinson, L., & The Task Force on Statistical Inference of the APA Board of Scientific Affairs. (1999). Statistical methods in psychology journals: Guidelines and explanations. American Psychologist, 54(8), 594–604. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.54.8.594.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, A. C., Lengua, L. J., Meltzoff, A. N., & Smith, K. A. (2010). Parenting and temperament prior to September 11, 2001, and parenting specific to 9/11 as predictors of children’s posttraumatic stress symptoms following 9/11. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 39(4), 445–459. doi:10.1080/15374416.2010.486317.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wu, P., Duarte, C. S., Mandell, D. J., Fan, B., Liu, X., Fuller, C. J., et al. (2006). Exposure to the World Trade Center attack and the use of cigarettes and alcohol among New York City public high-school students. American Journal of Public Health, 96(5), 804–807. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2004.058925.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yang, P., Wu, M. T., Hsu, C. C., & Ker, J. H. (2004). Evidence of early neurobiological alternations in adolescents with posttraumatic stress disorder: A functional MRI study. Neuroscience Letters, 370, 13–18. doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2004.07.033.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yehuda, R., & McFarlane, A. C. (1995). Conflict between current knowledge about posttraumatic stress disorder and its original conceptual basis. American Journal of Psychiatry, 152(12), 1705–1713.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yelland, C., Robinson, P., Lock, C., La Greca, A. M., Kokegei, B., Ridgway, V., et al. (2010). Bushfire impact on youth. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 23(2), 274–277. doi:10.1002/jts.20521.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This work was funded in part by the National Institute of Mental Health, the National Institute of Nursing Research, and the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (5 R25 MH070569) which established the Child and Family Disaster Research Training and Education Program at the Terrorism and Disaster Center (TDC) at the University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center (Dr. B. Pfefferbaum). TDC is a partner in the National Child Traumatic Stress Network and is funded by the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (1 U79 SM57278).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. College of Medicine, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA

    Amarsha Chakraburtty

  2. Terrorism and Disaster Center, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA

    Betty Pfefferbaum, Pascal Nitiéma, Mary A. Noffsinger, Rose L. Pfefferbaum & Vandana Varma

  3. Department of Psychology, University of New Orleans, New Orleans, LA, USA

    Carl F. Weems & Brandon G. Scott

  4. Department of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, College of Public Health, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA

    Pascal Nitiéma

  5. Courtroom Sciences, Inc., Irving, TX, USA

    Mary A. Noffsinger

  6. Liberal Arts Department, Phoenix Community College, Phoenix, AZ, USA

    Rose L. Pfefferbaum

  7. Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, WP 3470, P.O. Box 26901, Oklahoma City, OK, 73126-0901, USA

    Betty Pfefferbaum

Authors
  1. Betty Pfefferbaum
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Carl F. Weems
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Brandon G. Scott
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Pascal Nitiéma
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Mary A. Noffsinger
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Rose L. Pfefferbaum
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Vandana Varma
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Amarsha Chakraburtty
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Betty Pfefferbaum.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Pfefferbaum, B., Weems, C.F., Scott, B.G. et al. Research Methods in Child Disaster Studies: A Review of Studies Generated by the September 11, 2001, Terrorist Attacks; the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami; and Hurricane Katrina. Child Youth Care Forum 42, 285–337 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-013-9211-4

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-013-9211-4

Keywords

Search

Navigation