Abstract
Delays and deficits may both contribute to atypical development of movement skills by children with ASD. Fundamental movement skills of 25 children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) (ages 9–12 years) were compared to three typically developing groups using the Test of Gross Motor Development (TGMD-2). The group matched on chronological age performed significantly better on the TGMD-2. Another comparison group matched on movement skill demonstrated children with ASD perform similarly to children approximately half their age. Comparisons to a third group matched on mental age equivalence revealed the movement skills of children with ASD are more impaired than would be expected given their cognitive level. Collectively, these results suggest the movement skills of children with ASD reflect deficits in addition to delays.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
To ensure the children included in each of the comparison groups were typically developing, a variety of measures were taken. Students with any formal record of learning disability or developmental disorder in their school files were excluded. The physical educator and homeroom teacher of each student also confirmed typical development.
ASD was primary diagnosis for all children included in the ASD group; no child had record of seizure disorder.
A power analysis with effect size of .10 and a power of .06 supported sufficient sample size to demonstrate no difference between these groups on the locomotor skills.
A power analysis with effect size of .01 and a power of .05 again supported sufficient sample size to demonstrate no performance difference between these groups on object control skills.
References
American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association. Text Revision.
Asperger, H. (1944). Die ‘autistischen psychopathen’ im kindesalter. Archiv fur Psychiatrie und Nervenkrankheiten, 117, 76–136.
Asperger, H. (1991). ‘Autistic psychopathy’ in childhood (U. Frith, Trans.). In U. Frith (Ed.), Autism and Asperger syndrome (pp. 37–92). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Baranek, G. T., Parham, D., & Bodfish, J. W. (2005). Sensory and motor features in autism: Assessment and intervention. In F. R. Volkmar, R. Paul, A. Klin, & D. Cohen (Eds.), Handbook of autism and pervasive developmental disorders (Vol. 2, pp. 831–857). Hobenken, NJ: Wiley.
Berkeley, S. L., Zittel, L. L., Pitney, L. V., & Nichols, S. E. (2001). Locomotor and object control skills of children diagnosed with autism. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 18, 405–416.
Bruininks, R. H., & Bruininks, B. D. (2005). Bruininks–Oseretsky test of motor proficiency (2nd ed.). Windsor: NFER-Nelson.
Burack, J. A., Iarocci, G., Bowler, D., & Mottron, L. (2002). Benefits and pitfalls in the merging of disciplines: The example of developmental psychopathology and the study of persons with autism. Development and Psychopathology, 14, 225–237.
Burton, A. W., & Miller, D. E. (1998). Movement skill assessment. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Constantino, J. N., & Gruber, C. P. (2005). The Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS) manual. Los Angeles, CA: Western Psychological Services.
DeMyer, M. K. (1976). Motor, perceptual-motor, intellectual disabilities of autistic children. In L. Wing (Ed.), Early childhood autism (pp. 169–193). New York: Pergamon Press.
Dewey, D., Cantell, M., & Crawford, S. G. (2007). Motor and gestural performance in children with autism spectrum disorders, developmental coordination disorder, and/or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 13, 246–256.
Folio, M. R., & Fewell, R. R. (2000). Peabody developmental motor scales examiner’s manual (2nd ed.). Austin: Pro-Ed.
Fronske, H., Blakemore, C., & Abendroth-Smith, J. (1997). The effect of critical cue on overhand throwing efficiency of elementary school children. Physical Educator, 54, 88–95.
Ghaziuddin, M., & Butler, E. (1998). Clumsiness in autism and Asperger syndrome: A further report. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 42, 43–48.
Green, D., Baird, G., Barnett, A. L., Henderson, L., Huber, J., & Henderson, S. E. (2002). The severity and nature of motor impairment in Asperger’s syndrome: A comparison with specific developmental disorder of motor function. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 43(5), 1–14.
Henderson, S. E., Sugden, D. A., & Barnett, A. L. (2007). Movement assessment battery for children (2nd ed.). London: Pearson Assessment.
Jarrold, C., & Brock, J. (2004). To match or not to match? Methodological issues in autism-related research. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 34, 81–86.
Kanner, L. (1943). Autistic disturbances of affective contact. Nervous Child, 2, 217–250.
Looper, J., Wu, J., Barroso, R. A., Ulrich, D., & Ulrich, B. D. (2006). Changes in step variability of new walkers with typical development and with Down syndrome. Journal of Motor Behavior, 38, 367–372.
Lord, C., Rutter, M., DiLavore, P. C., & Risi, S. (2002). Autism diagnostic observation schedule: Manual. Los Angeles, CA: Western Psychological Services.
Magill, R. A. (1998). Motor learning: Concepts and applications (5th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Mervis, C. B., & Klein-Tasman, B. P. (2004). Methodological issues in group-matching designs: α levels for control variable comparisons and measurement characteristics of control and target variables. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 34, 7–17.
Morin, B., & Reid, G. (1985). A quantitative and qualitative assessment of autistic individuals on selected motor tasks. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 2, 43–55.
National Research Council. (2001). Educating children with autism: Report of the committee on educational interventions in children with autism Washington. DC: National Academy Press.
Provost, B., Heimerl, S., & Lopez, B. R. (2007). Levels of gross and fine motor development in young children with autism spectrum disorder. Physical and Occupational Therapy in Pediatrics, 27(3), 21–36.
Reid, G., Collier, D., & Morin, B. (1983). The motor performance of autistic individuals. In R. Eason, T. Smith, & F. Caron (Eds.), Adapted physical activity (pp. 201–218). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Reid, G., O’Connor, J., & Lloyd, M. (2003). The autism spectrum disorders: Physical activity instruction. Palaestra, 19(2), 20–26. 47–48.
Rogers, S. J., & Williams, J. H. G. (2006). Imitation in autism: Findings and controversies. In S. J. Rogers & J. H. G. Williams (Eds.), Imitation and the social mind: Autism and typical development. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
Roid, G. H., & Miller, L. J. (1997). Leiter international performance scale—Revised. Wood Dale, IL: Stoeling.
Staples, K., Todd, T., & Reid, G. (2006). Physical activity instruction and autism spectrum disorders. ACHPER Healthy Lifestyles Journal, 53(3–4), 17–23.
Tager-Flusberg, H., Paul, R., & Lord, C. (2005). Language and communication in autism. In F. R. Volkmar, R. Paul, A. Klin, & D. Cohen (Eds.), Handbook of autism and pervasive developmental disorders (3rd ed., pp. 335–364). New Jersey: Wiley.
Ulrich, D. A. (2000). Test of gross motor development (2nd ed.). Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.
Wall, A. E. (2004). The developmental skill-learning gap hypothesis: Implications for children with movement difficulties. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 21, 196–218.
Acknowledgments
Kerri Staples is now at the University of Regina. This research was part of a doctoral dissertation supported by an Autism Research Training program (CIHR, Autism Speaks, and FRSQ), Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada, and research grants from McGill University and Special Olympics awarded to the first author. Thank-you to Matt Steven, Alissa Apa, Myléne Boudreau, and Emma Steven for their invaluable assistance throughout data collection and analysis. A huge thank-you goes to the schools, teachers, and children who made this research possible. A version of this manuscript was presented at the North American Federation of Adapted Physical Activity.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Staples, K.L., Reid, G. Fundamental Movement Skills and Autism Spectrum Disorders. J Autism Dev Disord 40, 209–217 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-009-0854-9
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-009-0854-9