Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Parent and Child PTSD and Parent Depression in Relation to Parenting Stress Among Trauma-Exposed Children

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Child and Family Studies Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This study examined the association between parent and child reported posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) and parenting stress as well as parent posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), parent depression and child PTSS as predictors of parenting stress. Forty-three children ages 8–12 years and their parents/guardians participated. Semi-structured interviews occurred independently with parents and children about child PTSS. Parents completed a self-report parenting stress measure and participated in interviews about their PTSD and depression. There was a moderate association between parent and child reported PTSS, and there was a stronger association between parent-reported PTSS and parenting stress than child-reported PTSS. Parent depression and parent-reported PTSS predicted parenting distress; whereas parent-reported PTSS predicted parenting stress related to parent–child dysfunctional interaction and difficult child behavior. Results suggest clinicians working with children exposed to trauma need to assess both parent and child reports of child PTSS, as well as parent symptomology and parenting stress.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abidin, R. R. (1995). The parenting stress index (3rd ed.). Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association (APA). (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Ammerman, R. T., Shenk, C. E., Teeters, A. R., Noll, J. G., Putnam, F. W., & Van Ginkel, J. B. (2013). Multiple mediation of trauma and parenting stress in mothers in home visiting. Infant Mental Health Journal, 34, 234–241. doi:10.1002/imhj.2138.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berkowitz, S., Stover, C. S., & Marans, S. (2010). The child and family traumatic stress intervention: Secondary prevention for youth at risk youth of developing PTSD. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52, 676–685.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bernardon, S., & Pernice-Duca, F. (2010). A family systems perspective to recovery from posttraumatic stress in children. The Family Journal, 18, 349–357. doi:10.1177/1066480710376618.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chang, Y., & Fine, M. A. (2007). Modeling parenting stress trajectories among low-income young mothers across the child’s second and third years: Factors accounting for stability and change. Journal of Family Psychology, 21, 584–594. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.21.4.584.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Costa, N. M., Weems, C. F., Pellerin, K., & Dalton, R. (2006). Parenting stress and childhood psychopathology: An examination of specificity to internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 28, 113–122. doi:10.1007/s10862-006-7489-3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Creasey, G., & Reese, M. (1996). Mothers’ and fathers’ perceptions of parenting hassles: Associations with psychological symptoms, nonparenting hassles, and child behavior problems. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 17, 393–406. doi:10.1016/S0193-3973(96)90033-7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crnic, K. A., Gaze, C., & Hoffman, C. (2005). Cumulative parenting stress across the preschool period: Relations to maternal parenting and child behaviour at age. Infant and Child Development, 14, 117–132. doi:10.1002/icd.384.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deater-Deckard, K. (1998). Parenting stress and child adjustment: Some old hypotheses and new questions. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 5, 314–332. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2850.1998.tb00152.x.

    Google Scholar 

  • First, M. B., Spitzer, R. L., Miriam, G., & Williams, J. B. W. (2002). Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV-TR Axis I disorders, research version, patient edition with psychotic screen (SCID-I/P W/PSY SCREEN). New York: Biometrics Research, New York State Psychiatric Institute.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fraser, J. G., Lloyd, S., Murphy, R., Cowson, M., Zolotor, A. J., Coker-Schwimmer, E., et al. (2013). A comparative effectiveness review of parenting and trauma-focused interventions for children exposed to maltreatment. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 34, 353–368. doi:10.1097/DBP.0b013e31828a7dfc.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ghesquiere, A., Fan, M. Y., Berliner, L., Rivara, F. P., Jurkovich, G. J., Russo, J., et al. (2008). Adolescents’ and parents’ agreement on posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms and functioning after adolescent injury. Journal of Trauma Stress, 21, 487–491. doi:10.1002/jts.20364.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Greenbaum, P. F., Dedrick, R. F., Prange, M. E., & Friedman, R. M. (1994). Parent, teacher, and child ratings of problem behaviors of youngsters with serious emotional disturbances. Psychological Assessment, 6, 141–148.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hahn, H., Oransky, M., Epstein, C. Stover, C. S., & Marans, S. (2013). Effectiveness of the child and family traumatic stress intervention: Findings of a brief family strengthening intervention implemented in a child advocacy center setting following sexual abuse. Manuscript submitted for publication.

  • Hickman, L. J., Jaycox, L. H., Setodji, C. M., Kofner, A., Schultz, D., Barnes-Proby, D., et al. (2013). How much does “how much” matter? Assessing the relationship between children’s lifetime exposure to violence and trauma symptoms, behavior problems, and parenting stress. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 28, 1338–1362. doi:10.1177/0886260512468239.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jelic Tuscic, S., Buljan Flander, B., & Mateskovic, D. (2013). The consequences of childhood abuse. Pediatrics Today, 9, 24–35. doi:10.5457/p2005-114.58.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kassam-Adams, N., Garcia-Espana, J. F., Miller, V. A., & Winston, F. (2006). Parent–child agreement regarding children’s acute stress: The role of parent acute stress reactions. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 45, 1485–1493.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kessler, R. C. (2000). Posttraumatic stress disorder: The burden to the individual and to society. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 61(supplement 5), 1–12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levendosky, A. A., & Graham-Bermann, S. A. (2000). Trauma and parenting in battered women. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma, 3, 25–35. doi:10.1300/J146v03n01_03.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McDonald, S., Slade, P., Spiby, H., & Iles, J. (2012). Post-traumatic stress symptoms, parenting stress and mother-child relationships following childbirth and at 2 years postpartum. Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics and Gynecology, 32, 141–146. doi:10.3109/0167482X.2011.596962.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McLaughlin, K. A., Koenen, K. C., Hill, E. D., Petukhova, M., Sampson, N. A., Zaslavsky, A. M., et al. (2013). Trauma exposure and posttraumatic stress disorder in a national sample of adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 52, 815–830. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2013.05.011.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Meiser-Stedman, R., Smith, P., Glucksman, E., Yule, W., & Dalgleish, T. (2007). Parent and child agreement for acute stress disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder and other psychopathology in a prospective study of children and adolescents exposed to single-event trauma. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35, 191–201. doi:10.1007/s10802-006-9068-1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Morgan, J., Robinson, D., & Aldridge, J. (2002). Parenting stress and externalizing child behavior. Child and Family Social Work, 7, 219–225.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morris, A., Gabert-Quillen, C., & Delahanty, D. (2012). The association between parent PTSD/depression symptoms and child PTSD symptoms: A meta-analysis. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 37, 1076–1088. doi:10.1093/jpepsy/jss091.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nieter, L., Thornberry, T., & Brestan-Knight, E. (2013). The effectiveness of group parent–child interaction therapy with community families. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 22, 490–501. doi:10.1007/s10826-012-9601-5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nooner, K. B., Linares, L. O., Batinjane, J., Kramer, R. A., Silva, R., & Cloitre, M. (2012). Factors related to posttraumatic stress disorder in adolescence. Trauma, Violence, and Abuse, 13, 153–166. doi:10.1177/1524838012447698.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oransky, M., Hahn, H., & Stover, C. S. (2013). Caregiver and youth agreement regarding youth’s trauma histories: Implications for youth’s functioning after exposure to trauma. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42, 1528–1542.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reising, M. M., Watson, K. H., Hardcastle, E. J., Merchant, M. J., Roberts, L., Forehand, R., et al. (2013). Parental depression and economic disadvantage: The role of parenting in associations with internalizing and externalizing symptoms in children and adolescents. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 22, 335–343. doi:10.1007/s10826-012-9582-4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Renk, K., Oliveros, A., Roddenberry, A., Klein, J., Sieger, K., Roberts, R., et al. (2007). The relationship between maternal and paternal psychological symptoms and ratings of adolescent functioning. Journal of Adolescence, 30, 467–485.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Renner, L. M. (2009). Intimate partner violence victimization and parenting stress: Assessing the mediating role of depressive symptoms. Violence Against Women, 15, 1380–1401. doi:10.1177/1077801209346712.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Richters, J. E., & Martinez, P. (1993). The NIMH community violence project: I. Children as victims of and witnesses to violence. Psychiatry, 56, 7–21.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rodriguez, C. M. (2011). Association between independent reports of maternal parenting stress and children’s internalizing symptomology. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 20, 631–639. doi:10.1007/s10826-010-9438-8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Santiago, P. N., Ursano, R. J., Gray, C. L., Pynoos, R. S., Spiegel, D., Lewis-Fernadez, R., et al. (2013). A systematic review of PTSD prevalence and trajectories in DSM-5 defined trauma exposed populations: Intentional and non-intentional traumatic events. PLoS One, 8(4), e59236. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0059236.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schlenger, W. E., Kulka, R. A., Fairbank, J. A., Hough, R. L., Jordan, B. K., Marmar, C., et al. (1992). The prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder in the Vietnam generation: A multi-method, multisource assessment of psychiatric disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 5, 333–363.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Silverman, W. K., & Albano, A. M. (1996). Anxiety disorder interview schedule for DSM-IV: Child and parent interview schedule. San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Silverman, W. K., Saavedra, L. M., & Pina, A. A. (2001). Test–retest reliability of anxiety symptoms and diagnoses with anxiety disorders interview schedule for DSM-IV: Child and parent versions. Journal of American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 937–944.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Song, S. H., Kim, B. N., Choi, N. H., Ryu, J., McDermott, B., Cobham, V., et al. (2012). A 30-month prospective follow-up study of psychological symptoms, psychiatric diagnoses, and their effects on quality of life in children witnessing a single incident of death at school. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 73, e594–e600. doi:10.4088/JCP.11m07348.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Soper, D. S. (2013). A-priori sample size calculator for multiple regression [software]. http://www.danielsoper.com/statcalc.

  • Stover, C. S., Hahn, H., Im, J. J. Y., & Berkowitz, S. (2010). Agreement of parent and child reports of trauma exposure and symptoms in the early aftermath of a traumatic event. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 2, 159–168.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Theule, J., Wiener, J., Tannock, R., & Jenkins, J. M. (2012). Parenting stress in families of children with ADHD: A meta-analysis. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 21, 3–17. doi:10.1177/1063426610387433.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Timmer, S. G., Ware, L. M., Urquiza, A. J., & Zebell, N. M. (2010). The effectiveness of parent–child interaction therapy for victims of interparental violence. Violence and Victims, 25, 486–503. doi:10.1891/0886-6708.25.4.486.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Valentino, K., Berkowitz, S., & Stover, C. S. (2010). Parenting behaviors and posttraumatic symptoms in relation to children’s symptomology following a traumatic event. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 23, 403–407.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vaughan, E. L., Feinn, R., Bernard, S., Brereton, M., & Kaufman, J. S. (2012). Relationships between child emotional and behavioral symptoms and caregiver strain and parenting stress. Journal of Family Issues, 34, 534–556. doi:10.1177/0192513X12440949.

    Article  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Viana, A. G., & Welsh, J. A. (2010). Correlates and predictors of parenting stress among internationally adopting mothers: A longitudinal investigation. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 34, 363–373.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weathers, F. W., Keane, T. M., & Foa, E. B. (2009). Assessment and diagnosis of adults. In E. B. Foa, T. M. Keane, M. J. Friedman, & J. A. Cohen (Eds.), Effective treatments for PTSD: Practice guideline from the international society for traumatic stress studies (pp. 23–61). New York, NY: Guildford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wood, J. J., Piacentini, J. C., Bergman, R. L., McCracken, J., & Barrios, V. (2002). Concurrent validity of the anxiety disorders section of the anxiety disorders interview schedule for DSM-IV: Child and parent versions. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 31, 335–342.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zanarini, M. C., Skodol, A. E., Bender, D., Dolan, R., Sanislow, C., Schaefer, E., et al. (2000). The collaborative longitudinal personality disorders study: Reliability of axis I and II diagnoses. Journal of Personality Disorders, 14, 291–299.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zerk, D. M., Mertin, P. G., & Proeve, M. (2009). Domestic violence and maternal reports of young children’s functioning. Journal of Family Violence, 24, 423–432. doi:10.1007/s10896-009-9237-4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the Crisis Center of Tampa Bay, particularly David Braughton, President & CEO, Awneet Chandhok, LMFT (who conducted all of the assessments), Melissa Thompson, MSW, Angela Claudio Torres, LMHC, Fabrienne McDowell, M. S., Tia Burr, and Kyra Snyder.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Social Work, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, 33612, USA

    Alison Salloum & Victoria R. Swaidan

  2. Department of Mental Health Law and Policy, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA

    Carla Smith Stover

  3. Departments of Pediatrics and Psychiatry, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA

    Eric A. Storch

Authors
  1. Alison Salloum
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Carla Smith Stover
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Victoria R. Swaidan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Eric A. Storch
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Alison Salloum.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Salloum, A., Stover, C.S., Swaidan, V.R. et al. Parent and Child PTSD and Parent Depression in Relation to Parenting Stress Among Trauma-Exposed Children. J Child Fam Stud 24, 1203–1212 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-014-9928-1

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-014-9928-1

Keywords

Search

Navigation