Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Parent–Child Aggression Risk in Expectant Mothers and Fathers: A Multimethod Theoretical Approach

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Child and Family Studies Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The current investigation evaluated whether cognitive processes characteristic of the Social Information Processing model predicted parent–child aggression (PCA) risk independent of personal vulnerabilities and resiliencies. This study utilized a multimethod approach, including analog tasks, with a diverse sample of 203 primiparous expectant mothers and 151 of their partners. Factors considered in this study included PCA approval attitudes, empathy, reactivity, negative child attributions, compliance expectations, and knowledge of non-physical discipline alternatives; additionally, vulnerabilities included psychopathology symptoms, domestic violence victimization, and substance use, whereas resiliencies included perceived social support, partner relationship satisfaction, and coping efficacy. For both mothers and fathers, findings supported the role of greater approval of PCA attitudes, lower empathy, more overreactivity, more negative attributions, and higher compliance expectations in relation to elevated risk of PCA. Moreover, personal vulnerabilities and resiliencies related to PCA risk for mothers; however, fathers and mothers differed on the nature of these relationships with respect to vulnerabilities as well as aspects of empathy and PCA approval attitudes. Findings provide evidence for commonalities in many of the factors investigated between mothers and fathers with some notable distinctions. Results are discussed in terms of how findings could inform prevention programs.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Ammerman, R. T., Altaye, M., Putnam, F. W., Teeters, A. R., Zou, Y., & Ginkel, J. B. (2014). Depression improvement and parenting in low-income mothers in home visiting. Archives of Women’s Mental Health, 18, 555–563.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ammerman, R. T., Kolko, D. J., Kirisci, L., Blackson, T. C., & Dawes, M. A. (1999). Child abuse potential in parents with histories of substance use disorder. Child Abuse and Neglect, 23, 1225–1238.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ammerman, R. T., & Patz, R. J. (1996). Determinants of child abuse potential: Contribution of parent and child factors. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 25, 300–307.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ateah, C. A., & Durrant, J. E. (2005). Maternal use of physical punishment in response to child misbehavior: Implications for child abuse prevention. Child Abuse and Neglect, 29, 169–185.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barlow, J., & Calam, R. (2011). A public health approach to safeguarding in the 21st century. Child Abuse Review, 20, 238–255.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bavolek, S. J., & Keene, R. G. (2001). Adult–Adolescent Parenting Inventory (AAPI-2): Administration and development handbook. Park City, UT: Family Development Resources Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Belsky, J. (1993). Etiology of child maltreatment: A developmental-ecological analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 114, 413–434.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Berlin, L. J., Dodge, K. A., & Reznick, J. S. (2013). Examining pregnant women’s hostile attributions about infants as a predictor of offspring maltreatment. JAMA Pediatrics, 167, 549–553.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Black, D. A., Heyman, R. E., & Smith Slep, A. M. (2001). Risk factors for child physical abuse. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 6, 121–188.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bower-Russa, M. E., Knutson, J. F., & Winebarger, A. (2001). Disciplinary history, adult disciplinary attitudes, and risk for abusive parenting. Journal of Community Psychology, 29, 219–240.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bugental, D. B., Ellerson, P. C., Lin, E. K., Rainey, B., Kokotovic, A., & O’Hara, N. (2002). A cognitive approach to child abuse prevention. Journal of Family Psychology, 16, 243–258.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Buri, J. R. (1991). Parental authority questionnaire. Journal of Personality and Social Assessment, 57, 110–119.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Casanueva, C. E., & Martin, S. L. (2007). Intimate partner violence during pregnancy and mothers’ child abuse potential. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 22, 603–622.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Catanzaro, S. J., & Mearns, J. (1990). Measuring generalized expectancies for negative mood regulation: Initial scale development and implications. Journal of Personality Assessment, 54, 546–563.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chesney, M. A., Neilands, T. B., Chambers, D. B., Taylor, J. M., & Folkman, S. A. (2006). Validity and reliability study of the coping self-efficacy scale. British Journal of Health Psychology, 11, 421–437.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Chilamkurti, C., & Milner, J. S. (1993). Perceptions and evaluations of child transgressions and disciplinary techniques in high- and low-risk mothers and their children. Child Development, 64, 1801–1814.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crick, N. R., & Dodge, K. A. (1994). A review and reformulation of social information-processing mechanisms in children’s social adjustment. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 74–101.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crouch, J. L., & Behl, L. E. (2001). Relationships among parental beliefs in corporal punishment, reported stress, and physical child abuse potential. Child Abuse and Neglect, 25, 413–419.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Davis, M. H. (1983). The effects of dispositional empathy on emotional reactions and helping: A multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality, 51, 167–184.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DeGarmo, D. S., Reid, J. B., & Knutson, J. F. (2006). Direct laboratory observations and analog measures in research definitions of child maltreatment. In M. Feerick, J. F. Knutson, P. Trickett, & S. Flanzier (Eds.), Child abuse and neglect: Definitions, classifications, and a framework for research (pp. 293–328). Baltimore, MD: Brooks.

    Google Scholar 

  • Derogatis, L. R., & Melisaratos, N. (1983). The Brief Symptom Inventory: An introductory report. Psychological Medicine, 13, 595–605.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Durrant, J. E., Trocme, N., Fallon, B., Milne, C., & Black, T. (2009). Protection of children from physical maltreatment in Canada: An evaluation of the Supreme Court’s definition. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment, and Trauma, 18, 64–87.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eid, M., & Deiner, E. (2006). Handbook of multimethod measurement in psychology. Washington, DC: APA.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Fazio, R. H., & Olson, M. A. (2003). Implicit measures in social cognition research: Their meaning and use. Annual Review of Psychology, 54, 297–327.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Florsheim, P., Sumida, E., McCann, C., Winstanley, M., Fukui, R., Seefeldt, T., et al. (2003). The transition to parenthood among young African American and Latino couples: Relational predictors of risk for parental dysfunction. Journal of Family Psychology, 17, 65–79.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Funk, J. L., & Rogge, R. D. (2007). Testing the ruler with item response theory: Increasing precision of measurement for relationship satisfaction with the Couples Satisfaction Index. Journal of Family Psychology, 21, 572–583.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gershoff, E. T. (2010). More harm than good: A summary of the scientific research on the intended and unintended effects of corporal punishment on children. Law and Contemporary Problems, 73, 31–56.

    Google Scholar 

  • Graziano, A. M. (1994). Why we should study subabusive violence against children. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 9, 412–419.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Greenwald, R. L., Bank, L., Reid, J. B., & Knutson, J. F. (1997). A discipline-mediated model of excessively punitive parenting. Aggressive Behavior, 23, 259–280.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., & Schwartz, J. K. L. (1998). Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The implicit association test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1464–1480.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Haltigan, J. D., Leerkes, E. L., Burney, R. V., O’Brien, M., Supple, A. J., & Calkins, S. D. (2012). The infant crying questionnaire: Initial factor structure and validation. Infant Behavior and Development, 35, 876–883.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Harrington, N. (2005). The frustration discomfort scale: Development and psychometric properties. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 12, 374–387.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haskett, M. E., Scott, S. S., & Fann, K. D. (1995). Child abuse potential inventory and parenting behavior: Relationships with high-risk correlates. Child Abuse and Neglect, 19, 1483–1495.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Haskett, M. E., Scott, S. S., Willoughby, M., Ahern, L., & Nears, K. (2006). The parent opinion questionnaire and child vignettes for use with abusive parents: Assessment of psychometric properties. Journal of Family Violence, 21, 137–151.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hien, D., Cohen, L. R., Caldeira, N. A., Flom, P., & Wasserman, G. (2010). Depression and anger as risk factors underlying the relationship between substance involvement and child abuse potential. Child Abuse and Neglect, 34, 105–111.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hughes, M. A., Price, R. L., & Marrs, D. W. (1986). Linking theory construction and theory testing: Models with multiple indicators and latent variables. Academy of Management Review, 11, 128–144.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kadushin, A., & Martin, J. A. (1981). Interview study of abuse-event interaction. In A. Kadushin (Ed.), Child abuse: An interactional event (pp. 141–224). New York, NY: Columbia University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee, S. J., Bellamy, J. L., & Guterman, N. B. (2009). Fathers, physical child abuse, and neglect: Advancing the knowledge base. Child Maltreatment, 14, 227–231.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, S. J., Grogan-Kaylor, A., & Berger, L. M. (2014). Parental spanking of 1-year-old children and subsequent child protective services involvement. Child Abuse and Neglect, 38, 875–883.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Leerkes, E. L., & Siepak, K. (2006). Attachment linked predictors of women’s emotional and cognitive responses to infant distress. Attachment and Human Development, 8, 11–32.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Little, T. D. (2013). Longitudinal structural equation modeling. New York, NY: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Little, T. D., Lindenberger, U., & Nesselroade, J. R. (1999). On selecting indicators for multivariate measurement and modeling with latent variables: When “good” indicators are bad and “bad” indicators are good. Psychological Methods, 4, 192–211.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Margolin, G., Gordis, E. B., Medina, A. M., & Oliver, P. H. (2003). The co-occurrence of husband-to-wife aggression, family-of-origin aggression, and child abuse potential in a community sample. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 18, 413–440.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McElroy, E. M., & Rodriguez, C. M. (2008). Mothers of children with externalizing behavior problems: Cognitive risk factors for abuse potential and discipline style and practices. Child Abuse and Neglect, 32, 774–784.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mennen, F. E., & Trickett, P. K. (2011). Parenting attitudes, family environments, depression, and anxiety in caregivers of maltreated children. Family Relations, 60, 259–271.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Milner, J. S. (1986). The child abuse potential inventory: Manual (2nd ed.). Webster, NC: Psyctec.

    Google Scholar 

  • Milner, J. S. (1994). Assessing physical child abuse risk: The child abuse potential inventory. Clinical Psychology Review, 14, 547–583.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Milner, J. S. (2000). Social information processing and child physical abuse: Theory and research. In D. J. Hansen (Ed.), Nebraska symposium on motivation, Vo. 46, 1998: Motivation and child maltreatment (pp. 39–84). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Milner, J. S., & Dopke, C. (1997). Child physical abuse: Review of offender characteristics. In D. A. Wolfe, R. J. McMahon, & R. D. Peters (Eds.), Child abuse: New directions in prevention and treatment across the lifespan (pp. 27–54). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Montes, M. P., de Paul, J., & Milner, J. S. (2001). Evaluations, attributions, affect, and disciplinary choices in mothers at high and low risk for child physical abuse. Child Abuse and Neglect, 25, 1015–1036.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • National Institutes of Health (2016). NIH Research Portfolio Online Reporting Tools (RePORT). Retrieved from https://projectreporter.nih.gov/project_info_description.cfm?aid=8367126&icde=0.

  • Nosek, B. A. (2007). Understanding the individual implicitly and explicitly. International Journal of Psychology, 42, 184–188.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Perez-Albeniz, A., & De Paul, J. (2004). Gender differences in empathy in parents at high- and low-risk of child physical abuse. Child Abuse and Neglect, 28, 289–300.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Peugh, J. L., DiLillo, D., & Panuzio, J. (2013). Analyzing mixed-dyadic data using structural equation models. Structural Equation Modeling, 20, 314–337.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Plotkin, R. (1983). Cognitive mediation in disciplinary actions among mothers who have abused or neglected their children: Dispositional and environmental factors. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Rochester.

  • Price-Wolff, J. (2015). Social support, collective efficacy, and child physical abuse: Does parent gender matter? Child Maltreatment, 20, 125–135.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Prinz, R., Sanders, M., Shapiro, C., Whitaker, D., & Lutzker, J. (2009). Population-based prevention of child maltreatment: The U.S. Triple P System Population Trial. Prevention Science, 10, 1–12.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Rabbitt, S. M. (2013). The role of stress in parental perceptions of child noncompliance. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Yale University.

  • Richardson, D., Hammock, G., Smith, S., Gardner, W., & Signo, M. (1994). Empathy as a cognitive inhibitor of interpersonal aggression. Aggressive Behavior, 20, 275–289.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rodriguez, C. M. (2010a). Parent-child aggression: Association with child abuse potential and parenting styles. Violence and Victims, 25, 728–741.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rodriguez, C. M. (2010b). Personal contextual characteristics and cognitions: Predicting child abuse potential and disciplinary style. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 25, 315–335.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rodriguez, C. M. (2013). Analog of parental empathy: Association with physical child abuse risk and punishment intentions. Child Abuse and Neglect, 37, 493–499.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rodriguez, C. M. (2016). Parental discipline reactions to child noncompliance and compliance: Association with parent-child aggression indicators. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 25, 1363–1374.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rodriguez, C. M., Bower-Russa, M., & Harmon, N. (2011). Assessing abuse risk beyond self-report: Analog task of acceptability of parent-child aggression. Child Abuse and Neglect, 35, 199–209.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rodriguez, C. M., & Richardson, M. J. (2007). Stress and anger as contextual factors and pre-existing cognitive schemas: Predicting parental child maltreatment risk. Child Maltreatment, 12, 325–337.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rodriguez, C. M., Russa, M. B., & Kircher, J. C. (2015). Analog assessment of frustration tolerance: Association with self-reported child abuse risk and physiological reactivity. Child Abuse and Neglect, 46, 121–131.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rodriguez, C. M., Smith, T. L., & Silvia, P. J. (2016). Multimethod prediction of physical parent-child aggression risk in expectant mothers and fathers with social information processing theory. Child Abuse and Neglect, 51, 106–119.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rodriguez, C. M., & Sutherland, D. (1999). Predictors of parents’ physical disciplinary practices. Child Abuse and Neglect, 23, 651–657.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rodriguez, C. M., & Tucker, M. C. (2015). Predicting physical child abuse risk beyond mental distress and social support: Additive role of cognitive processes. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 24, 1780–1790.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Russell, B. S., & Lincoln, C. R. (2016). Distress tolerance and emotion regulation: Promoting maternal well-being across the transition to parenthood. Parenting: Science and Practice, 16, 22–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schaeffer, C. M., Alexander, P. C., Bethke, K., & Kretz, L. S. (2005). Predictors of child abuse potential among military parents: Comparing mothers and fathers. Journal of Family Violence, 20, 123–129.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schloss, H. M., & Haaga, D. A. F. (2011). Interrelating behavioral measures of distress tolerance with self-reported experiential avoidance. Journal of Rational-Emotive Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy, 29, 53–63.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sedlak, A.J., Mettenburg, J., Basena, M., Petta, I., McPherson, K., Greene, A., & Li, S. (2010). Fourth National Incidence Study of Child Abuse and Neglect (NIS–4): Report to Congress, Executive Summary. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Retrieved from http://www.acf.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/opre/nis4_report_congress_full_pdf_jan2010.pdf.

  • Shanalingigwa, O. A. (2009). Understanding social and cultural differences in perceiving child maltreatment. Doctoral dissertation, University of Minnesota. Dissertation Abstracts International.

  • Smith Slep, A. M., & O’Leary, S. G. (2007). Multivariate models of mothers’ and fathers’ aggression toward their children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 75, 739–751.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stith, S. M., Liu, T., Davies, C., Boykin, E. L., Alder, M. C., Harris, J. M., et al. (2009). Risk factors in child maltreatment: A meta-analytic review of the literature. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 14, 13–29.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Straus, M. A. (2001). New evidence for the benefits of never spanking. Society, 38, 52–60.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Straus, M. A., Hamby, S. L., Boney-McCoy, S., & Sugarman, D. B. (1996). The revised Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS2): Development and preliminary psychometric data. Journal of Family Issues, 17, 283–316.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • United States Department of Health and Human Services. (2016). Child Maltreatment 2014. Retrieved from http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/cb/research-data-technology/statistics-research/child-maltreatment.

  • Vaux, A., & Harrison, D. (1985). Support network characteristics associated with support satisfaction and perceived support. American Journal of Community Psychology, 13, 245–268.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Webster-Stratton, C., & Reid, J. (2010). Adapting the Incredible Years, an evidence-based parenting programme, for families involved in the child welfare system. Journal of Children’s Services, 5, 25–42.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wendorf, C. A. (2002). Comparisons of structural equation modeling and hierarchical linear modeling approaches to couples’ data. Structural Equation Modeling, 9, 126–140.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Whetten, K., Reif, S., Swartz, M., Stevens, R., Ostermann, J., Hanisch, L., & Eron, J. J, Jr. (2005). A brief mental health and substance abuse screener for persons with HIV. AIDS Patient Care and STDs, 19, 89–99.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Whipple, E. E., & Richey, C. A. (1997). Crossing the line from physical discipline to child abuse: How much is too much? Child Abuse and Neglect, 5, 431–444.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

We thank our participating families and participating Obstetrics/Gynecology clinics that facilitated recruitment. This research was supported by award number R15HD071431 from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development or the National Institutes of Health.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, 1720 2nd Ave South, Birmingham, AL, 35294, USA

    Christina M. Rodriguez

  2. School of Public Health, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA

    Tamika L. Smith

  3. Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, NC, USA

    Paul J. Silvia

Authors
  1. Christina M. Rodriguez
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Tamika L. Smith
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Paul J. Silvia
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Christina M. Rodriguez.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Ethical Approval

As indicated in the methods, all procedures performed adhered to ethical standards and was approved by the Institutional Review Board

Informed Consent

Informed consent was obtained from all participants.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Rodriguez, C.M., Smith, T.L. & Silvia, P.J. Parent–Child Aggression Risk in Expectant Mothers and Fathers: A Multimethod Theoretical Approach. J Child Fam Stud 25, 3220–3235 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-016-0481-y

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-016-0481-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation