Skip to main content
Log in

Psychometric Properties of the Grief Cognitions Questionnaire (GCQ)

  • Published:
Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Cognitive behavioral conceptualizations of complicated grief propose that negative cognitions play a core role in the development and persistence of emotional problems after bereavement, because they generate negative emotions and cause mourners to engage in counterproductive attempts to avoid the implications and the pain of the loss. To facilitate the assessment of potentially problematic cognitions after bereavement, the Grief Cognitions Questionnaire (GCQ) has been developed—a 38-item questionnaire representing 9 categories of cognitions. Building on a previous study that supported the reliability and validity of the GCQ, the current study further examined its psychometric properties, with data of 531 bereaved individuals who completed research questionnaires online through the Internet. Confirmatory factor analyses supported the nine-factor structure with 9 interrelated factors. The reliability and convergent and discriminative validity were found to be adequate. Altogether the GCQ seems to be a useful tool for the assessment of negative thinking after bereavement in research and clinical practice.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abrahms, J. L. (1981). Depression versus normal grief following the death of a significant other. In G. Emery, S. D. Hollon, & R. C. Bedrosian (Eds.), New directions in cognitive therapy (pp. 255–270). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Akaiki, H. (1987). Factor analysis and AIC. Psychometrika, 52, 317–332.

    MathSciNet  Google Scholar 

  • Arbuckle, J. L. (2003). Amos 5.0 update to the Amos user’s guide. Chicago: Smallwaters Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arbuckle, J. L., & Wothke, W. W. (1999). Amos 4.0 user’s guide. Chicago: SmallWaters.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arrindell, W. A., & Ettema, J. (2003). Symptom Checklist. Handleiding bij een multidimensionele psychopathologie-indicator. [Symptom Checklist. Manual for a multidimensional indicator of psychopathology.] Lisse: Swets & Zeitlinger.

  • Beck, A. T., Rush, A. J., Shaw, B. F., & Emery, G. (1979). Cognitive therapy of depression. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bentler, P. M. (1990). Comparative fit indexes in structural models. Psychological Bulletin, 107, 238–246.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boelen, P. A., Kip, J. J., Voorsluijs, J. J., & Van den Bout, J. (2004). Irrational beliefs and basic assumptions in bereaved university students: A comparison study. Journal of Rational-Emotive and Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 22, 111–129.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boelen, P. A., Van den Bout, J., de Keijser, J., & Hoijtink, H. (2003). Reliability and validity of the Dutch version of the Inventory of Traumatic Grief. Death Studies, 27, 227–249.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boelen, P. A., Van den Bout, J., & Van den Hout, M. A. (2003a). The role of cognitive variables in psychological functioning after the death of a first degree relative. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41, 1123–1136.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boelen, P. A., Van den Bout, J., & Van den Hout, M. A. (2003b). The role of negative interpretations of grief reactions in emotional problems after bereavement. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 34, 225–238.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boelen, P. A., Van den Bout, J., & Van der Ploeg, E. (2002). Psychometrische eigenschappen van de Nederlandstalige versie van de Automatic Thoughts Questionnaire-Positive (ATQ-P). [Psychometric properties of the Dutch version of the Automatic Thoughts Questionnaire-Positive (ATQ-P).]. Gedragstherapie, 35, 269–286.

    Google Scholar 

  • Derogatis, L. R. (1983). SCL-90-R: Administration, scoring, and procedures. Manual II (2nd ed.). Towson, MD: Clinical Psychometric Research.

    Google Scholar 

  • Doka, K. (Ed.). (1989). Disenfranchised grief: Recognizing hidden sorrow. Lexington, MA: Lexington.

    Google Scholar 

  • Edwards, A. C. (1976). An introduction to linear regression and correlation. San Francisco: Freeman.

    Google Scholar 

  • Efron, B. (2003). Second thoughts on the bootstrap. Statistical Science, 18, 135–140.

    Google Scholar 

  • Field, N. P., & Bonanno, G. A. (2001). The role of blame in adaptation in the first 5 years following the death of a spouse. American Behavioral Scientist, 44, 764–781.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fleming, S., & Robinson, P. J. (2001). Grief and cognitive behavior therapy: The reconstruction of meaning. In M. S. Stroebe, R. O. Hansson, W. Stroebe, & H. A. W. Schut (Eds.), Handbook of bereavement research: consequences, coping, and care (pp. 647–670). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Foa, E. B., Ehlers, A., Clark, D. M., Tolin, D. F., & Orsillo, S. M. (1999). The Posttraumatic Cognitions Inventory (PTCI): Development and validation. Psychological Assessment, 11, 303–314.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gluhoski, V. L. (1995). A cognitive perspective on bereavement: mechanisms and treatment. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy: An International Quarterly, 9, 75–84.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haynes, S. N., Richard, D. C. S., & Kubany, E. S. (1995). Content validity in psychological assessment: A functional approach to concepts and methods. Psychological Assessment, 7, 238–247.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoelter, J. W. (1983). The analysis of covariance structures: Goodness of fit indices. Sociological Methods and Research, 11, 325–344.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modelling, 6, 1–55.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ingram, R. E., Kendall, P. C., Siegle, G., Guarino, J., & McLaughlin, S. C. (1995). Psychometric properties of the Positive Automatic Thoughts Questionnaire. Psychological Assessment, 7, 495–507.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ingram, R. E., & Wisnicke, K. S. (1988). Assessment of positive automatic cognition. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56, 898–902.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Janoff-Bulman, R. (1989). Assumptive worlds and the stress of traumatic events: Applications of the schema construct. Social Cognition, 7, 113–136.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jolly, J. B., & Kramer, T. A. (1994). The hierarchical arrangement of internalizing cognitions. Cognitive Research and Therapy, 18, 1–14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kraut, R., Olson, J., Banaji, M., Bruckman, A., Cohen, J., & Couper, M. (2004). Psychological research online. Report of board of scientific affairs’ advisory group on the conduct of research on the internet. American Psychologist, 59, 105–117.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Malkinson, R. (1996). Cognitive behavioral grief therapy. Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 14, 155–171.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marshall, G. N., Wortman, C. B., Kusulas, J. W., Hervig, L. K., & Vickers, R. R. (1992). Distinguishing optimism from pessimism: Relations to fundamental dimensions of mood and personality. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62, 1067–1074.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parkes, C. M. (1988). Bereavement as a psychosocial transition: Processes of adaptation to change. Journal of Social Issues, 44, 53–66.

    Google Scholar 

  • Prigerson, H. G., Bierhals, A. J., Kasl, S. V., Reynolds, C. F., Shear, M. K., Day, N., et al. (1997). Traumatic grief as a risk factor for mental and physical morbidity. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 616–623.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Prigerson, H. G., & Jacobs, S. C. (2001). Traumatic grief as a distinct disorder: A rationale, consensus criteria, and a preliminary empirical test. In M. S. Stroebe, R. O. Hansson, W. Stroebe, & H. A. W. Schut (Eds.), Handbook of bereavement research: Consequences, coping, and care (pp. 613–647). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Prigerson, H. G., Shear, M. K., Jacobs, S. C., Reynolds, C. F., Maciejewski, P. K., Davidson, J., et al. (1999). Consensus criteria for traumatic grief. British Journal of Psychiatry, 174, 67–73.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rando, T. A. (1993). Treatment of complicated mourning. Champaign, IL: Research Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robinson, P. J., & Fleming, S. (1992). Depressotypic cognitive patterns in major depression and conjugal bereavement. Omega, 25, 291–305.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scheier, M. F., & Carver, C. S. (1985). Optimism, coping, and health: Assessment and implications of generalized outcome expectancies. Health Psychology, 4, 219–247.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartzberg, S. S., & Janoff-Bulman, R. (1991). Grief and the search for meaning: exploring the assumptive worlds of bereaved college students. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 10, 270–288.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stroebe, M., Stroebe, W., & Schut, H. (2001). Gender differences in adjustment to bereavement: An empirical and theoretical review. Review of General Psychology, 5, 62–83.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vinck, J., Wels, G., Arickx, M., & Vinck, S. (1998). Optimisme gemeten. Validatie van de Nederlandstalige Levensoriëntatietest bij jongeren. [Assessing optimism in youth: Validation of the Dutch Life Orientation Test.]. Gedrag & Gezondheid, 26, 79–90.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wenninger, K., & Ehlers, A. (1998). Dysfunctional cognitions and adult psychological functioning in child sexual abuse survivors. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 11, 281–300.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • West, S. G., Finch, J. F., & Curran, P. J. (1995). Structural equation models with nonnormal variables. Problems and remedies. In R. H. Hoyle (Ed.), Structural equation modeling. Concepts, issues, and applications (pp. 56–75). London: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Paul A. Boelen.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Boelen, P.A., Lensvelt-Mulders, G.J.L.M. Psychometric Properties of the Grief Cognitions Questionnaire (GCQ). J Psychopathol Behav Assess 27, 291–303 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-005-2409-5

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-005-2409-5

Key Words

Navigation