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Erschienen in: Journal of Behavioral Medicine 1/2009

01.02.2009

Discrimination and racial disparities in health: evidence and needed research

verfasst von: David R. Williams, Selina A. Mohammed

Erschienen in: Journal of Behavioral Medicine | Ausgabe 1/2009

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Abstract

This paper provides a review and critique of empirical research on perceived discrimination and health. The patterns of racial disparities in health suggest that there are multiple ways by which racism can affect health. Perceived discrimination is one such pathway and the paper reviews the published research on discrimination and health that appeared in PubMed between 2005 and 2007. This recent research continues to document an inverse association between discrimination and health. This pattern is now evident in a wider range of contexts and for a broader array of outcomes. Advancing our understanding of the relationship between perceived discrimination and health will require more attention to situating discrimination within the context of other health-relevant aspects of racism, measuring it comprehensively and accurately, assessing its stressful dimensions, and identifying the mechanisms that link discrimination to health.
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Zurück zum Zitat Din-Dzietharn, R., Nembhard, W. N., Collins, R., & Davis, S. D. (2004). Perceived stress following race-based discrimination at work is associated with hypertension in African-Americans. The metro Atlanta heart disease study 1999–2001. Social Science & Medicine, 58, 449–461. doi:10.1016/S0277-9536(03)00211-9. Din-Dzietharn, R., Nembhard, W. N., Collins, R., & Davis, S. D. (2004). Perceived stress following race-based discrimination at work is associated with hypertension in African-Americans. The metro Atlanta heart disease study 1999–2001. Social Science & Medicine, 58, 449–461. doi:10.​1016/​S0277-9536(03)00211-9.
Zurück zum Zitat Dohrenwend, B. P. (2006). Inventorying stressful life events as risk factors for psychopathology: Toward resolution of the problem of intracategory variability. Psychological Bulletin, 132(3), 477–495. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.3.477.PubMed Dohrenwend, B. P. (2006). Inventorying stressful life events as risk factors for psychopathology: Toward resolution of the problem of intracategory variability. Psychological Bulletin, 132(3), 477–495. doi:10.​1037/​0033-2909.​132.​3.​477.PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Dougall, A. L., Craig, K. J., & Baum, A. (1999). Assessment of characteristics of intrusive thoughts and their impact on distress among victims of traumatic events. Psychosomatic Medicine, 61, 38–48.PubMed Dougall, A. L., Craig, K. J., & Baum, A. (1999). Assessment of characteristics of intrusive thoughts and their impact on distress among victims of traumatic events. Psychosomatic Medicine, 61, 38–48.PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Dyrbye, L. N., Thomas, M. R., Eacker, A., Harper, W., Massie, F. S. J., Power, D. V., et al. (2007). Race, ethnicity, and medical student well-being in the United States. Archives of Internal Medicine, 167(19), 2103–2109. doi:10.1001/archinte.167.19.2103.PubMed Dyrbye, L. N., Thomas, M. R., Eacker, A., Harper, W., Massie, F. S. J., Power, D. V., et al. (2007). Race, ethnicity, and medical student well-being in the United States. Archives of Internal Medicine, 167(19), 2103–2109. doi:10.​1001/​archinte.​167.​19.​2103.PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Epel, E., Lin, J., Wilhelm, F., Wolkowitz, O., Cawthon, R., Adler, N., et al. (2006). Cell aging in relation to stress arousal and cardiovascular diseases risk factors. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 31(3), 277–287. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2005.08.011.PubMed Epel, E., Lin, J., Wilhelm, F., Wolkowitz, O., Cawthon, R., Adler, N., et al. (2006). Cell aging in relation to stress arousal and cardiovascular diseases risk factors. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 31(3), 277–287. doi:10.​1016/​j.​psyneuen.​2005.​08.​011.PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Etowa, J., Weins, J., Bernard, W. T., & Clow, B. (2007). Determinants of black women’s health in rural and remote countries. Canadian Journal of Nursing Research, 39(3), 56–76.PubMed Etowa, J., Weins, J., Bernard, W. T., & Clow, B. (2007). Determinants of black women’s health in rural and remote countries. Canadian Journal of Nursing Research, 39(3), 56–76.PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Evans, G. W., Jacobs, S. V., Dooley, D., & Catalano, R. (1987). The interaction of stressful life events and chronic strains on community mental health. American Journal of Community Psychology, 15(1), 23–34. doi:10.1007/BF00919755.PubMed Evans, G. W., Jacobs, S. V., Dooley, D., & Catalano, R. (1987). The interaction of stressful life events and chronic strains on community mental health. American Journal of Community Psychology, 15(1), 23–34. doi:10.​1007/​BF00919755.PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Ferrie, M. J., Vahtera, J., Marmot, M. G., & Kivimaki, M. (2006). Injustice at work and incidence of psychiatric morbidity: The Whitehall II study. Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 63, 443–450. doi:10.1136/oem.2005.022269.PubMed Ferrie, M. J., Vahtera, J., Marmot, M. G., & Kivimaki, M. (2006). Injustice at work and incidence of psychiatric morbidity: The Whitehall II study. Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 63, 443–450. doi:10.​1136/​oem.​2005.​022269.PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Fischer, C. S., Hout, M., Jankowski, M. S., Lucas, S. R., Swidler, A., & Voss, K. (1996). Inequality by design: Cracking the bell curve myth. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Fischer, C. S., Hout, M., Jankowski, M. S., Lucas, S. R., Swidler, A., & Voss, K. (1996). Inequality by design: Cracking the bell curve myth. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Zurück zum Zitat Fix, M., & Struyk, R. J. (1993). Clear and convincing evidence: Measurement of discrimination in America. Washington, D.C: Urban Institute Press. Fix, M., & Struyk, R. J. (1993). Clear and convincing evidence: Measurement of discrimination in America. Washington, D.C: Urban Institute Press.
Zurück zum Zitat Forman, T. A. (2003). The social psychological costs of racial segmentation in the workplace: A study of African Americans’ well-being. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 44(3), 332–352. doi:10.2307/1519783.PubMed Forman, T. A. (2003). The social psychological costs of racial segmentation in the workplace: A study of African Americans’ well-being. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 44(3), 332–352. doi:10.​2307/​1519783.PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Fowler-Brown, A., Ashkin, E., Corbie-Smith, G., Thaker, S., & Pathman, D. E. (2006). Perception of racial barriers to health care in the rural South. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved, 17(1), 86–100. doi:10.1353/hpu.2006.0022.PubMed Fowler-Brown, A., Ashkin, E., Corbie-Smith, G., Thaker, S., & Pathman, D. E. (2006). Perception of racial barriers to health care in the rural South. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved, 17(1), 86–100. doi:10.​1353/​hpu.​2006.​0022.PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Gee, G. C., Chen, J., Spencer, M., See, S., Kuester, O., Tran, D., et al. (2006a). Social support as a buffer for perceived unfair treatment among Filipino Americans: Differences between San Francisco and Hawaii. American Journal of Public Health, 96(4), 677–684. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2004.060442.PubMed Gee, G. C., Chen, J., Spencer, M., See, S., Kuester, O., Tran, D., et al. (2006a). Social support as a buffer for perceived unfair treatment among Filipino Americans: Differences between San Francisco and Hawaii. American Journal of Public Health, 96(4), 677–684. doi:10.​2105/​AJPH.​2004.​060442.PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Gee, G. C., Delva, J., & Takeuchi, D. (2007a). Relationships between self-reported unfair treatment and prescription medication use, illicit drug use, and alcohol dependence among Filipino Americans. American Journal of Public Health, 97(5), 933–940. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2005.075739.PubMed Gee, G. C., Delva, J., & Takeuchi, D. (2007a). Relationships between self-reported unfair treatment and prescription medication use, illicit drug use, and alcohol dependence among Filipino Americans. American Journal of Public Health, 97(5), 933–940. doi:10.​2105/​AJPH.​2005.​075739.PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Gee, G. C., Ryan, A., Laflamme, D. J., & Holt, J. (2006b). Self-reported discrimination and mental health status among African descendents, Mexican Americans, and other Latinos in the New Hampshire REACH 2010 Initiative: The added dimension of immigration. American Journal of Public Health, 96(10), 1821–1828. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2005.080085.PubMed Gee, G. C., Ryan, A., Laflamme, D. J., & Holt, J. (2006b). Self-reported discrimination and mental health status among African descendents, Mexican Americans, and other Latinos in the New Hampshire REACH 2010 Initiative: The added dimension of immigration. American Journal of Public Health, 96(10), 1821–1828. doi:10.​2105/​AJPH.​2005.​080085.PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Gee, G. C., Spencer, M. S., Chen, J., & Takeuchi, D. (2007c). A nationwide study of discrimination and chronic health conditions among Asian Americans. American Journal of Public Health, 97(7), 1275–1282. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2006.091827.PubMed Gee, G. C., Spencer, M. S., Chen, J., & Takeuchi, D. (2007c). A nationwide study of discrimination and chronic health conditions among Asian Americans. American Journal of Public Health, 97(7), 1275–1282. doi:10.​2105/​AJPH.​2006.​091827.PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Gee, G. C., Spencer, M., Chen, J., Yip, T., & Takeuchi, D. (2007b). The association between self-reported racial discrimination and 12-month DSM-IV mental disorders among Asian Americans nationwide. Social Science & Medicine, 64(10), 1984–1996. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2007.02.013. Gee, G. C., Spencer, M., Chen, J., Yip, T., & Takeuchi, D. (2007b). The association between self-reported racial discrimination and 12-month DSM-IV mental disorders among Asian Americans nationwide. Social Science & Medicine, 64(10), 1984–1996. doi:10.​1016/​j.​socscimed.​2007.​02.​013.
Zurück zum Zitat Gibbons, F. X, Yeh, H. C., Gerrard, M., Cleveland, M. J., Cutrona, C., Simons, R. L., & Brody, G. H. (2007). Early experience with racial discrimination and conduct disorder as predictors of subsequent drug use: A critical period hypothesis. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 88(Suppl 1), 27–37. Gibbons, F. X, Yeh, H. C., Gerrard, M., Cleveland, M. J., Cutrona, C., Simons, R. L., & Brody, G. H. (2007). Early experience with racial discrimination and conduct disorder as predictors of subsequent drug use: A critical period hypothesis. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 88(Suppl 1), 27–37.
Zurück zum Zitat Goldsmith, A. H., Hamilton, Darrick., & Darity, William, Jr. (2007). From dark to light: Skin color and wages among African-Americans. The Journal of Human Resources, 42(4), 701–738. Goldsmith, A. H., Hamilton, Darrick., & Darity, William, Jr. (2007). From dark to light: Skin color and wages among African-Americans. The Journal of Human Resources, 42(4), 701–738.
Zurück zum Zitat Gomez, J. P., & Trierweiler, S. (2001). Does discrimination terminology create response bias in questionnaire studies of discrimination? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27(5), 630–638. doi:10.1177/0146167201275011. Gomez, J. P., & Trierweiler, S. (2001). Does discrimination terminology create response bias in questionnaire studies of discrimination? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27(5), 630–638. doi:10.​1177/​0146167201275011​.
Zurück zum Zitat Green, A. R., Carney, D. R., Pallin, D. J., Ngo, L. H., Raymond, K. L., Iezzoni, L. I., et al. (2007). Implicit bias among physicians and its prediction of thrombolysis decisions for black and white patients. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 22(9), 1231–1238. doi:10.1007/s11606-007-0258-5.PubMed Green, A. R., Carney, D. R., Pallin, D. J., Ngo, L. H., Raymond, K. L., Iezzoni, L. I., et al. (2007). Implicit bias among physicians and its prediction of thrombolysis decisions for black and white patients. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 22(9), 1231–1238. doi:10.​1007/​s11606-007-0258-5.PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Greene, M. L., Way, N., & Pahl, K. (2006). Trajectories of perceived adult and peer discrimination among Black, Latino, and Asian American adolescents: Patterns and psychological correlates. Developmental Psychology, 42(2), 218–236. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.42.2.218.PubMed Greene, M. L., Way, N., & Pahl, K. (2006). Trajectories of perceived adult and peer discrimination among Black, Latino, and Asian American adolescents: Patterns and psychological correlates. Developmental Psychology, 42(2), 218–236. doi:10.​1037/​0012-1649.​42.​2.​218.PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Guyll, M., Matthews, K. A., & Bromberger, J. T. (2001). Discrimination and unfair treatment: Relationship to cardiovascular reactivity among African American and European American women. Health Psychology, 20(5), 315–325. doi:10.1037/0278-6133.20.5.315.PubMed Guyll, M., Matthews, K. A., & Bromberger, J. T. (2001). Discrimination and unfair treatment: Relationship to cardiovascular reactivity among African American and European American women. Health Psychology, 20(5), 315–325. doi:10.​1037/​0278-6133.​20.​5.​315.PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Harrell, S. P. (1997). The Racism and Life Experience Scales (RaLES): Self-administration version. Los Angeles, CA: California School of Professional Psychology. Harrell, S. P. (1997). The Racism and Life Experience Scales (RaLES): Self-administration version. Los Angeles, CA: California School of Professional Psychology.
Zurück zum Zitat Harris, R., Tobias, M., Jeffreys, M., Waldegrave, K., Karlsen, S., & Nazroo, J. (2006a). Effects of self-reported racial discrimination and deprivation on Māori health and inequalities in New Zealand: Cross-sectional study. Lancet, 367(9527), 2005–2009. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68890-9.PubMed Harris, R., Tobias, M., Jeffreys, M., Waldegrave, K., Karlsen, S., & Nazroo, J. (2006a). Effects of self-reported racial discrimination and deprivation on Māori health and inequalities in New Zealand: Cross-sectional study. Lancet, 367(9527), 2005–2009. doi:10.​1016/​S0140-6736(06)68890-9.PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Harris, R., Tobias, M., Jeffreys, M., Waldegrave, K., Karlsen, S., & Nazroo, J. (2006b). Racism and health: The relationship between experience of racial discrimination and health in New Zealand. Social Science & Medicine, 63(6), 1428–1441. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2006.04.009. Harris, R., Tobias, M., Jeffreys, M., Waldegrave, K., Karlsen, S., & Nazroo, J. (2006b). Racism and health: The relationship between experience of racial discrimination and health in New Zealand. Social Science & Medicine, 63(6), 1428–1441. doi:10.​1016/​j.​socscimed.​2006.​04.​009.
Zurück zum Zitat Hoyo, C., Yarnall, S. H., Skinner, C. S., Moorman, P. G., Sellers, D., & Reid, L. (2005). Pain predicts non adherence to pap swear screening among middle-aged African American Women. Preventive Medicine, 41, 439–445. doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2004.11.021.PubMed Hoyo, C., Yarnall, S. H., Skinner, C. S., Moorman, P. G., Sellers, D., & Reid, L. (2005). Pain predicts non adherence to pap swear screening among middle-aged African American Women. Preventive Medicine, 41, 439–445. doi:10.​1016/​j.​ypmed.​2004.​11.​021.PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Jackson, B., Kubzansky, L. D., & Wright, R. J. (2006). Linking perceived unfairness to physical health: The perceived unfairness model. Review of General Psychology, 10(1), 21–40. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.10.1.21. Jackson, B., Kubzansky, L. D., & Wright, R. J. (2006). Linking perceived unfairness to physical health: The perceived unfairness model. Review of General Psychology, 10(1), 21–40. doi:10.​1037/​1089-2680.​10.​1.​21.
Zurück zum Zitat Jang, Y., Kim, G., & Chiriboga, D. A. (2005). Health, healthcare utilization, and satisfaction with service: Barriers and facilitators for older Korean Americans. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 53(9), 1613–1617. doi:10.1111/j.1532-5415.2005.53518.x.PubMed Jang, Y., Kim, G., & Chiriboga, D. A. (2005). Health, healthcare utilization, and satisfaction with service: Barriers and facilitators for older Korean Americans. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 53(9), 1613–1617. doi:10.​1111/​j.​1532-5415.​2005.​53518.​x.PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Jones, J. M. (1997). Prejudice and racism. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Inc. Jones, J. M. (1997). Prejudice and racism. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Inc.
Zurück zum Zitat Jones, C. P. (2000). Levels of racism: A theoretical framework and a gardener’s tale. American Journal of Public Health, 90(8), 1212–1215.PubMed Jones, C. P. (2000). Levels of racism: A theoretical framework and a gardener’s tale. American Journal of Public Health, 90(8), 1212–1215.PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Kalichman, S. C., Simbayi, L. C., Kagee, A., Toefy, Y., Jootse, S., Cain, D., et al. (2006). Associations of poverty, substance use and HIV transmission risk behaviors in three South African Communities. Social Science & Medicine, 62, 1641–1649. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2005.08.021. Kalichman, S. C., Simbayi, L. C., Kagee, A., Toefy, Y., Jootse, S., Cain, D., et al. (2006). Associations of poverty, substance use and HIV transmission risk behaviors in three South African Communities. Social Science & Medicine, 62, 1641–1649. doi:10.​1016/​j.​socscimed.​2005.​08.​021.
Zurück zum Zitat Karlsen, S., Nazroo, J. Y., McKenzie, K., Bhui, K., & Weich, S. (2005). Racism, psychosis and common mental disorder among ethnic minority groups in England. Psychological Medicine, 35(12), 1795–1803. doi:10.1017/S0033291705005830.PubMed Karlsen, S., Nazroo, J. Y., McKenzie, K., Bhui, K., & Weich, S. (2005). Racism, psychosis and common mental disorder among ethnic minority groups in England. Psychological Medicine, 35(12), 1795–1803. doi:10.​1017/​S003329170500583​0.PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Kaufman, J. S., Cooper, R. S., & McGee, D. L. (1997). Socioeconomic status and health in blacks and whites: The problem of residual confounding and the resiliency of race. Epidemiology (Cambridge, Mass), 8, 621–628. doi:10.1097/00001648-199710000-00002. Kaufman, J. S., Cooper, R. S., & McGee, D. L. (1997). Socioeconomic status and health in blacks and whites: The problem of residual confounding and the resiliency of race. Epidemiology (Cambridge, Mass), 8, 621–628. doi:10.​1097/​00001648-199710000-00002.
Zurück zum Zitat Keith, V. M., & Herring, C. (1991). Skin tone and stratification in the black community. American Journal of Sociology, 97(3), 760–778. doi:10.1086/229819. Keith, V. M., & Herring, C. (1991). Skin tone and stratification in the black community. American Journal of Sociology, 97(3), 760–778. doi:10.​1086/​229819.
Zurück zum Zitat Kessler, R. C., Galea, S., Gruber, M. J., Sampson, N. A., Ursano, R. J., & Wessely, S. (2008). Trends in mental illness and suicidality after Hurricane Katrina. Journal of Molecular Psychiatry, 13, 374–384. doi:10.1038/sj.mp.4002119. Kessler, R. C., Galea, S., Gruber, M. J., Sampson, N. A., Ursano, R. J., & Wessely, S. (2008). Trends in mental illness and suicidality after Hurricane Katrina. Journal of Molecular Psychiatry, 13, 374–384. doi:10.​1038/​sj.​mp.​4002119.
Zurück zum Zitat Kessler, R. C., Mickelson, K. D., & Williams, D. R. (1999). The prevalence, distribution, and mental health correlates of perceived discrimination in the United States. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 40, 208–230. doi:10.2307/2676349.PubMed Kessler, R. C., Mickelson, K. D., & Williams, D. R. (1999). The prevalence, distribution, and mental health correlates of perceived discrimination in the United States. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 40, 208–230. doi:10.​2307/​2676349.PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Khaylis, A., Waelde, L. C., & Bruce, E. J. (2007). The role of ethnic identity in the relationship of race-related stress to PTSD symptoms among young adults. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 8(4), 91–105. doi:10.1300/J229v08n04_06. Khaylis, A., Waelde, L. C., & Bruce, E. J. (2007). The role of ethnic identity in the relationship of race-related stress to PTSD symptoms among young adults. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 8(4), 91–105. doi:10.​1300/​J229v08n04_​06.
Zurück zum Zitat Kressin, N. R., Kristal, R. L., & Manze, M. (2008). Perceptions of race/ethnicity based discrimination: A review of measures and evaluation of their usefullness for the health care setting. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved, 19, 697–730. doi:10.1353/hpu.0.0041.PubMed Kressin, N. R., Kristal, R. L., & Manze, M. (2008). Perceptions of race/ethnicity based discrimination: A review of measures and evaluation of their usefullness for the health care setting. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved, 19, 697–730. doi:10.​1353/​hpu.​0.​0041.PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Krieger, N. (1999). Embodying Inequality: A review of concepts, measures, and methods for studying health consequences of discrimination. International Journal of Health Services, 29(2), 295–352. doi:10.2190/M11W-VWXE-KQM9-G97Q.PubMed Krieger, N. (1999). Embodying Inequality: A review of concepts, measures, and methods for studying health consequences of discrimination. International Journal of Health Services, 29(2), 295–352. doi:10.​2190/​M11W-VWXE-KQM9-G97Q.PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Krieger, N., Smith, K., Naishadham, D., Hartman, C., & Barbeau, E. M. (2005). Experiences of discrimination: Validity and reliability of a self-report measure for population health research on racism and health. Social Science & Medicine, 61(7), 1576–1596. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2005.03.006. Krieger, N., Smith, K., Naishadham, D., Hartman, C., & Barbeau, E. M. (2005). Experiences of discrimination: Validity and reliability of a self-report measure for population health research on racism and health. Social Science & Medicine, 61(7), 1576–1596. doi:10.​1016/​j.​socscimed.​2005.​03.​006.
Zurück zum Zitat Krysan, M., & Couper, M. P. (2003). Race in the live and virtual interview: Racial deference, social desirability, and activation effects in attitude surveys. Social Psychology Quarterly, 66(4), 364–383. doi:10.2307/1519835. Krysan, M., & Couper, M. P. (2003). Race in the live and virtual interview: Racial deference, social desirability, and activation effects in attitude surveys. Social Psychology Quarterly, 66(4), 364–383. doi:10.​2307/​1519835.
Zurück zum Zitat Kubany, E. S., Haynes, S. N., Leisen, M. B., Owens, J. A., Kaplan, A. S., Watson, S. B., et al. (2000). Development and preliminary validation of a brief broad-spectrum measure of trauma exposure: The Traumatic Life Events Questionnaire. Psychological Assessment, 12(2), 210–224. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.12.2.210.PubMed Kubany, E. S., Haynes, S. N., Leisen, M. B., Owens, J. A., Kaplan, A. S., Watson, S. B., et al. (2000). Development and preliminary validation of a brief broad-spectrum measure of trauma exposure: The Traumatic Life Events Questionnaire. Psychological Assessment, 12(2), 210–224. doi:10.​1037/​1040-3590.​12.​2.​210.PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Kung, H. C., Hoyert, D. L., Xu, J., & Murphy, S. L. (2008). Deaths: Final data for 2005. National Vital Statistics Reports, 56(10), 4–26. Kung, H. C., Hoyert, D. L., Xu, J., & Murphy, S. L. (2008). Deaths: Final data for 2005. National Vital Statistics Reports, 56(10), 4–26.
Zurück zum Zitat Lam, B. (2007). Impact of perceived racial discrimination and collective self-esteem on psychological distress among vietnamese-american college students: Sense of coherence as mediator. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 77(3), 370–376. doi:10.1037/0002-9432.77.3.370.PubMed Lam, B. (2007). Impact of perceived racial discrimination and collective self-esteem on psychological distress among vietnamese-american college students: Sense of coherence as mediator. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 77(3), 370–376. doi:10.​1037/​0002-9432.​77.​3.​370.PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Lam, A. M., Tsoi, K. W., & Chan, T. S. (2005). Adolescent Chinese immigrants in Hong Kong: A comparison with locally born students and factors associated with their psychological well-being. International Journal of Adolescent Medicine and Health, 17(2), 157–168.PubMed Lam, A. M., Tsoi, K. W., & Chan, T. S. (2005). Adolescent Chinese immigrants in Hong Kong: A comparison with locally born students and factors associated with their psychological well-being. International Journal of Adolescent Medicine and Health, 17(2), 157–168.PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Landrine, H., & Klonoff, E. A. (1996). The schedule of racist events: A measure of racial discrimination and a study of its negative physical and mental health consequences. The Journal of Black Psychology, 22(2), 144–168. doi:10.1177/00957984960222002. Landrine, H., & Klonoff, E. A. (1996). The schedule of racist events: A measure of racial discrimination and a study of its negative physical and mental health consequences. The Journal of Black Psychology, 22(2), 144–168. doi:10.​1177/​0095798496022200​2.
Zurück zum Zitat Landrine, H., Klonoff, E. A., Corral, I., Fernandez, S., & Roesch, S. (2006). Conceptualizing and measuring ethnic discrimination in health research. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 29(1), 79–94. doi:10.1007/s10865-005-9029-0.PubMed Landrine, H., Klonoff, E. A., Corral, I., Fernandez, S., & Roesch, S. (2006). Conceptualizing and measuring ethnic discrimination in health research. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 29(1), 79–94. doi:10.​1007/​s10865-005-9029-0.PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Larson, A., Gillies, M., Howard, P. J., & Coffin, J. (2007). It’s enough to make you sick: The impact of racism on the health of Aboriginal Australians. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, 31(4). doi: 10.1111/j.1753–6405.2007.00079.x. Larson, A., Gillies, M., Howard, P. J., & Coffin, J. (2007). It’s enough to make you sick: The impact of racism on the health of Aboriginal Australians. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, 31(4). doi: 10.​1111/​j.​1753–6405.​2007.​00079.​x.
Zurück zum Zitat Lepore, S. J., Evans, G. W., & Palsane, M. N. (1991). Social hassles and psychological health in the context of chronic crowding. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 32, 357–367. doi:10.2307/2137103.PubMed Lepore, S. J., Evans, G. W., & Palsane, M. N. (1991). Social hassles and psychological health in the context of chronic crowding. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 32, 357–367. doi:10.​2307/​2137103.PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Lepore, S. J., Revenson, T. A., Weinberger, S. L., Weston, P., Frisina, P. G., Robertson, R., et al. (2006). Effects of social stressors on cardiovascular reactivity in Black and White women. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 31(2), 120–127. doi:10.1207/s15324796abm3102_3.PubMed Lepore, S. J., Revenson, T. A., Weinberger, S. L., Weston, P., Frisina, P. G., Robertson, R., et al. (2006). Effects of social stressors on cardiovascular reactivity in Black and White women. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 31(2), 120–127. doi:10.​1207/​s15324796abm3102​_​3.PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Levine, R. S., Foster, J. E., Fullilove, R. E., Briggs, N. C., Hull, P. C., Husaini, B. A., et al. (2001). Black-white inequalities in mortality and life expectancy, 1933–1999: Implications for Healthy People 2010. Public Health Reports, 116, 474–483.PubMed Levine, R. S., Foster, J. E., Fullilove, R. E., Briggs, N. C., Hull, P. C., Husaini, B. A., et al. (2001). Black-white inequalities in mortality and life expectancy, 1933–1999: Implications for Healthy People 2010. Public Health Reports, 116, 474–483.PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Lewis, T., Everson-Rose, S., Powell, L. H., Matthews, K. A., Brown, C., Karavolos, K., et al. (2006). Chronic exposure to everyday discrimination and coronary artery calcification in African-American women: The SWAN Heart Study. Psychosomatic Medicine, 68, 362–368. doi:10.1097/01.psy.0000221360.94700.16.PubMed Lewis, T., Everson-Rose, S., Powell, L. H., Matthews, K. A., Brown, C., Karavolos, K., et al. (2006). Chronic exposure to everyday discrimination and coronary artery calcification in African-American women: The SWAN Heart Study. Psychosomatic Medicine, 68, 362–368. doi:10.​1097/​01.​psy.​0000221360.​94700.​16.PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Lincoln, K. D., Chatters, L. M., Taylor, R. J., & Jackson, J. S. (2007). Profiles of depressive symptoms among African Americans and Caribbean Blacks. Social Science & Medicine, 65, 200–213. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2007.02.038. Lincoln, K. D., Chatters, L. M., Taylor, R. J., & Jackson, J. S. (2007). Profiles of depressive symptoms among African Americans and Caribbean Blacks. Social Science & Medicine, 65, 200–213. doi:10.​1016/​j.​socscimed.​2007.​02.​038.
Zurück zum Zitat Locher, J. R., Roth, C. S., Sawyer-Baker, P., Bodner, E., & Allman, R. M. (2005). Soclai isolation, support, and capital and nutirtional risk in an older sample: Ethnic and gender differences. Social Science & Medicine, 60, 747–761. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2004.06.023. Locher, J. R., Roth, C. S., Sawyer-Baker, P., Bodner, E., & Allman, R. M. (2005). Soclai isolation, support, and capital and nutirtional risk in an older sample: Ethnic and gender differences. Social Science & Medicine, 60, 747–761. doi:10.​1016/​j.​socscimed.​2004.​06.​023.
Zurück zum Zitat Major, B., Kaiser, C. R., O’Brien, L. T., & McCoy, S. K. (2007). Perceived discrimination as worldview threat or worldview confirmation: Implications for self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(6), 1068–1086. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.92.6.1068.PubMed Major, B., Kaiser, C. R., O’Brien, L. T., & McCoy, S. K. (2007). Perceived discrimination as worldview threat or worldview confirmation: Implications for self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(6), 1068–1086. doi:10.​1037/​0022-3514.​92.​6.​1068.PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Malat, J., & Hamilton, M. A. (2006). Preference for same-race health care providers and perceptions of interpersonal discrimination in health care. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 47(2), 173–187.PubMed Malat, J., & Hamilton, M. A. (2006). Preference for same-race health care providers and perceptions of interpersonal discrimination in health care. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 47(2), 173–187.PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Malat, J., & van Ryn, M. (2005). African-American preference for same-race healthcare providers: The role of healthcare discrimination. Ethnicity & Disease, 15(4), 740–747. Malat, J., & van Ryn, M. (2005). African-American preference for same-race healthcare providers: The role of healthcare discrimination. Ethnicity & Disease, 15(4), 740–747.
Zurück zum Zitat Matthews, K. A., Salomon, K., Kenyon, K., & Zhou, F. (2005). Unfair treatment, discrimination, and ambulatory blood pressure in black and white adolescents. Health Psychology, 24(3), 258–265. doi:10.1037/0278-6133.24.3.258.PubMed Matthews, K. A., Salomon, K., Kenyon, K., & Zhou, F. (2005). Unfair treatment, discrimination, and ambulatory blood pressure in black and white adolescents. Health Psychology, 24(3), 258–265. doi:10.​1037/​0278-6133.​24.​3.​258.PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat McNeilly, M. D., Anderson, N. B., Armstead, C. A., Clark, R., Corbett, M., Robinson, E. L., et al. (1996). The percieved racism scale: A multidimensional assessment of the experience of white racism among African Americans. Ethnicity and Disease, 6(1,2), 154–166.PubMed McNeilly, M. D., Anderson, N. B., Armstead, C. A., Clark, R., Corbett, M., Robinson, E. L., et al. (1996). The percieved racism scale: A multidimensional assessment of the experience of white racism among African Americans. Ethnicity and Disease, 6(1,2), 154–166.PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Merritt, M. M., Bennett, G. G., Jr, Williams, R. B., Edwards, C. L., & Sollers, J., 3rd. (2006). Perceived racism and cardiovascular reactivity and recovery to personally relevant stress. Health Psychology, 25(3), 364–369. doi:10.1037/0278-6133.25.3.364.PubMed Merritt, M. M., Bennett, G. G., Jr, Williams, R. B., Edwards, C. L., & Sollers, J., 3rd. (2006). Perceived racism and cardiovascular reactivity and recovery to personally relevant stress. Health Psychology, 25(3), 364–369. doi:10.​1037/​0278-6133.​25.​3.​364.PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Miller, G. V., & Travers, C. J. (2005). Ethnicity and the experience of work: Job stress and satisfaction of minority ethnic teachers in the UK. International Review of Psychiatry (Abingdon England), 17(5), 317–327. doi:10.1080/09540260500238470. Miller, G. V., & Travers, C. J. (2005). Ethnicity and the experience of work: Job stress and satisfaction of minority ethnic teachers in the UK. International Review of Psychiatry (Abingdon England), 17(5), 317–327. doi:10.​1080/​0954026050023847​0.
Zurück zum Zitat Montgomery, E., & Foldspang, A. (2007). Discrimination, mental problems and social adaptation in young refugees. European Journal of Public Health, 18(2), 156–161.PubMed Montgomery, E., & Foldspang, A. (2007). Discrimination, mental problems and social adaptation in young refugees. European Journal of Public Health, 18(2), 156–161.PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Moody-Ayers, S. Y., Stewart, A. L., Covinsky, K. E., & Inouye, S. K. (2005). Prevalence and correlates of perceived societal racism in older African-American adults with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 53(12), 2202–2208. doi:10.1111/j.1532-5415.2005.00501.x.PubMed Moody-Ayers, S. Y., Stewart, A. L., Covinsky, K. E., & Inouye, S. K. (2005). Prevalence and correlates of perceived societal racism in older African-American adults with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 53(12), 2202–2208. doi:10.​1111/​j.​1532-5415.​2005.​00501.​x.PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Nápoles-Springer, A. M., Santoyo, J., Houston, K., Pérez-Stable, E. J., & Stewart, A. L. (2005). Patients’ perceptions of cultural factors affecting the quality of their medical encounters. Health Expectations, 8(1), 4–17. doi:10.1111/j.1369-7625.2004.00298.x.PubMed Nápoles-Springer, A. M., Santoyo, J., Houston, K., Pérez-Stable, E. J., & Stewart, A. L. (2005). Patients’ perceptions of cultural factors affecting the quality of their medical encounters. Health Expectations, 8(1), 4–17. doi:10.​1111/​j.​1369-7625.​2004.​00298.​x.PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat National Center for Health Statistics. (2007). Health United States, 2007 with Chartbook Trends in the Health of Americans. Hyattsville, MD. National Center for Health Statistics. (2007). Health United States, 2007 with Chartbook Trends in the Health of Americans. Hyattsville, MD.
Zurück zum Zitat Noh, S., Kaspar, V., & Wickrama, K. A. (2007). Overt and subtle racial discrimination and mental health: Preliminary findings for Korean immigrants. American Journal of Public Health, 97(7), 1269–1274. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2005.085316.PubMed Noh, S., Kaspar, V., & Wickrama, K. A. (2007). Overt and subtle racial discrimination and mental health: Preliminary findings for Korean immigrants. American Journal of Public Health, 97(7), 1269–1274. doi:10.​2105/​AJPH.​2005.​085316.PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Pamuk, E., Makuk, D., Heck, K., & Reuben, C. (1998). Socioeconomic status and health chartbook. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics. Pamuk, E., Makuk, D., Heck, K., & Reuben, C. (1998). Socioeconomic status and health chartbook. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics.
Zurück zum Zitat Pantzer, K., Rajmi, L., Tebe, C., Codina, F., Serra-Sutton, V., Ferrer, M., et al. (2006). Health related quality of life in immigrants and native school aged adolescents in Spain. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 60(8), 694–698. doi:10.1136/jech.2005.044073.PubMed Pantzer, K., Rajmi, L., Tebe, C., Codina, F., Serra-Sutton, V., Ferrer, M., et al. (2006). Health related quality of life in immigrants and native school aged adolescents in Spain. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 60(8), 694–698. doi:10.​1136/​jech.​2005.​044073.PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Paradies, Y. (2005). Anti-racism and indigenous Australians. Analysis of Social Issues aand Public Policy, 5(1), 1–28. Paradies, Y. (2005). Anti-racism and indigenous Australians. Analysis of Social Issues aand Public Policy, 5(1), 1–28.
Zurück zum Zitat Paradies, Y. (2006). A systematic review of empirical research on self-reported racism and health. International Journal of Epidemiology, 35(4), 888–901. doi:10.1093/ije/dyl056.PubMed Paradies, Y. (2006). A systematic review of empirical research on self-reported racism and health. International Journal of Epidemiology, 35(4), 888–901. doi:10.​1093/​ije/​dyl056.PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Pearlin, L. I., Schieman, S., Fazio, E. M., & Meersman, S. C. (2005). Stress, health, and the life course: Some conceptual perspectives. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 46(June), 205–219.PubMed Pearlin, L. I., Schieman, S., Fazio, E. M., & Meersman, S. C. (2005). Stress, health, and the life course: Some conceptual perspectives. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 46(June), 205–219.PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Peters, R. M., Benkert, R., Dinardo, E., & Templin, T. (2007). Assessing quality of care for African Americans with hypertension. Journal for Healthcare Quality, 29(3), 10–20.PubMed Peters, R. M., Benkert, R., Dinardo, E., & Templin, T. (2007). Assessing quality of care for African Americans with hypertension. Journal for Healthcare Quality, 29(3), 10–20.PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Pettigrew, T. F. (1964). Profile of the Negro American. Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand. Pettigrew, T. F. (1964). Profile of the Negro American. Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand.
Zurück zum Zitat Pieterse, A. L., & Carter, R. T. (2007). An examination of the relationship between general life stress, racism-related stress, and psychological health among black men. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54(1), 101–109. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.54.1.101. Pieterse, A. L., & Carter, R. T. (2007). An examination of the relationship between general life stress, racism-related stress, and psychological health among black men. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54(1), 101–109. doi:10.​1037/​0022-0167.​54.​1.​101.
Zurück zum Zitat Piette, J. D., Bibbins-Domingo, K., & Schillinger, D. (2006). Health care discrimination, processes of care, and diabetes patients’ health status. Patient Education and Counseling, 60(1), 41–48. doi:10.1016/j.pec.2004.12.001.PubMed Piette, J. D., Bibbins-Domingo, K., & Schillinger, D. (2006). Health care discrimination, processes of care, and diabetes patients’ health status. Patient Education and Counseling, 60(1), 41–48. doi:10.​1016/​j.​pec.​2004.​12.​001.PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Poyrazli, S., & Lopez, M. D. (2007). An exploratory study of perceived discrimination and homesickness: A comparison of international students and American students. The Journal of Psychology, 141(3), 263–280. doi:10.3200/JRLP.141.3.263-280.PubMed Poyrazli, S., & Lopez, M. D. (2007). An exploratory study of perceived discrimination and homesickness: A comparison of international students and American students. The Journal of Psychology, 141(3), 263–280. doi:10.​3200/​JRLP.​141.​3.​263-280.PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Richman, L. S., Bennett, G. G., Pek, J., Siegler, I., & Williams, R. B. J. (2007). Discrimination, dispositions, and cardiovascular responses to stress. Health Psychology, 26(6), 675–683. doi:10.1037/0278-6133.26.6.675.PubMed Richman, L. S., Bennett, G. G., Pek, J., Siegler, I., & Williams, R. B. J. (2007). Discrimination, dispositions, and cardiovascular responses to stress. Health Psychology, 26(6), 675–683. doi:10.​1037/​0278-6133.​26.​6.​675.PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Roberts, C. B., Vines, A. I., Kaufman, J. S., & James, S. A. (2007). Cross-sectional association between perceived discrimination and hypertension in African-American men and women: The Pitt County Study. American Journal of Epidemiology, 167(5), 624–632. EPub.PubMed Roberts, C. B., Vines, A. I., Kaufman, J. S., & James, S. A. (2007). Cross-sectional association between perceived discrimination and hypertension in African-American men and women: The Pitt County Study. American Journal of Epidemiology, 167(5), 624–632. EPub.PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Romero, A. J., Martinez, D., & Carvajal, S. C. (2007). Bicultural stress and adolescent risk behaviors in a community sample of Latinos and non-Latino European Americans. Ethnicity & Health, 12(5), 443–463. doi:10.1080/13557850701616854. Romero, A. J., Martinez, D., & Carvajal, S. C. (2007). Bicultural stress and adolescent risk behaviors in a community sample of Latinos and non-Latino European Americans. Ethnicity & Health, 12(5), 443–463. doi:10.​1080/​1355785070161685​4.
Zurück zum Zitat Ryan, A. M., Gee, G. C., & Laflamme, D. F. (2006). The Association between self-reported discrimination, physical health and blood pressure: Findings from African Americans, Black immigrants, and Latino immigrants in New Hampshire. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved, 17(2), 116–132. doi:10.1353/hpu.2006.0079.PubMed Ryan, A. M., Gee, G. C., & Laflamme, D. F. (2006). The Association between self-reported discrimination, physical health and blood pressure: Findings from African Americans, Black immigrants, and Latino immigrants in New Hampshire. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved, 17(2), 116–132. doi:10.​1353/​hpu.​2006.​0079.PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Schulz, A. J., Gravlee, C. C., Williams, D. R., Israel, B. A., Mentz, G., & Rowe, Z. (2006a). Discrimination, symptoms of depression, and self-rated health among african american women in detroit: Results from a longitudinal analysis. American Journal of Public Health, 96(7), 1265–1270. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2005.064543.PubMed Schulz, A. J., Gravlee, C. C., Williams, D. R., Israel, B. A., Mentz, G., & Rowe, Z. (2006a). Discrimination, symptoms of depression, and self-rated health among african american women in detroit: Results from a longitudinal analysis. American Journal of Public Health, 96(7), 1265–1270. doi:10.​2105/​AJPH.​2005.​064543.PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Schulz, A. J., Israel, B. A., Zenk, S. N., Parker, E. A., Lichtenstein, R., Shellman-Weir, S., et al. (2006b). Psychosocial stress and social support as mediators of relationships between income, length of residence and depressive symptoms among African American women on Detroit’s eastside. Social Science & Medicine, 62(2), 510–522. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2005.06.028. Schulz, A. J., Israel, B. A., Zenk, S. N., Parker, E. A., Lichtenstein, R., Shellman-Weir, S., et al. (2006b). Psychosocial stress and social support as mediators of relationships between income, length of residence and depressive symptoms among African American women on Detroit’s eastside. Social Science & Medicine, 62(2), 510–522. doi:10.​1016/​j.​socscimed.​2005.​06.​028.
Zurück zum Zitat Schulz, A. J., Williams, D. R., Israel, B. A., & Lempert, L. B. (2002). Racial and spatial relations as fundamental determinants of health in Detroit. The Milbank Quarterly, 80(4), 677–707. doi:10.1111/1468-0009.00028.PubMed Schulz, A. J., Williams, D. R., Israel, B. A., & Lempert, L. B. (2002). Racial and spatial relations as fundamental determinants of health in Detroit. The Milbank Quarterly, 80(4), 677–707. doi:10.​1111/​1468-0009.​00028.PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Schuman, H., Charlotte, S., Larwrence, B., & Maria, K. (1997). Racial attitudes in America: Trends and interpretations (Revised ed.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Schuman, H., Charlotte, S., Larwrence, B., & Maria, K. (1997). Racial attitudes in America: Trends and interpretations (Revised ed.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Zurück zum Zitat Seeman, T. E., Crimmins, E., Huang, M. H., Singer, B., Bucur, A., Gruenewald, T., et al. (2004). Cumulative biological risk and socio-economic differences in mortality: MacArthur studies of successful aging. Social Science & Medicine, 58, 1985–1997. doi:10.1016/S0277-9536(03)00402-7. Seeman, T. E., Crimmins, E., Huang, M. H., Singer, B., Bucur, A., Gruenewald, T., et al. (2004). Cumulative biological risk and socio-economic differences in mortality: MacArthur studies of successful aging. Social Science & Medicine, 58, 1985–1997. doi:10.​1016/​S0277-9536(03)00402-7.
Zurück zum Zitat Sellers, S. L., Bonham, V., Neighbors, H.·W., & Amell, J. W. (2006). Effects of racial discrimination and health behaviors on mental and physical health of middle-class african American Men. Health Education & Behavior, 27. Sellers, S. L., Bonham, V., Neighbors, H.·W., & Amell, J. W. (2006). Effects of racial discrimination and health behaviors on mental and physical health of middle-class african American Men. Health Education & Behavior, 27.
Zurück zum Zitat Siefert, K., Finlayson, T. L., Williams, D. R., Delva, J., & Ismail, A. I. (2007). Modifiable risk and protective factors for depressive symptoms in low-income African American mothers. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 77(1), 113–123. doi:10.1037/0002-9432.77.1.113.PubMed Siefert, K., Finlayson, T. L., Williams, D. R., Delva, J., & Ismail, A. I. (2007). Modifiable risk and protective factors for depressive symptoms in low-income African American mothers. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 77(1), 113–123. doi:10.​1037/​0002-9432.​77.​1.​113.PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Simons, R. L., Simons, L. G., Burt, C. H., Drummund, H., Stewart, E., Brody, G. H., et al. (2006). Supportive parenting moderates the effect of discrimination upon anger, hostile view of relationships, and violence among African American boys. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 47(4), 373–389.PubMedCrossRef Simons, R. L., Simons, L. G., Burt, C. H., Drummund, H., Stewart, E., Brody, G. H., et al. (2006). Supportive parenting moderates the effect of discrimination upon anger, hostile view of relationships, and violence among African American boys. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 47(4), 373–389.PubMedCrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Smedley, B. D., Stith, A. Y., & Nelson, A. R. (2003). Unequal treatment: Confronting racial and ethnic disparities in health care. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. Smedley, B. D., Stith, A. Y., & Nelson, A. R. (2003). Unequal treatment: Confronting racial and ethnic disparities in health care. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
Zurück zum Zitat Smokowski, P. R., & Bacallao, M. (2007). Acculturation, internalizing mental health symptoms, and self-esteem: Cultural experiences of Latino adolescents in North Carolina. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 37(3), 273–292. doi:10.1007/s10578-006-0035-4.PubMed Smokowski, P. R., & Bacallao, M. (2007). Acculturation, internalizing mental health symptoms, and self-esteem: Cultural experiences of Latino adolescents in North Carolina. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 37(3), 273–292. doi:10.​1007/​s10578-006-0035-4.PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Sohler, N., Li, X., & C, C. (2007). Perceived discrimination among severly disadvantaged people with HIV infection. Public Health Reports, 122(3), 347–355.PubMed Sohler, N., Li, X., & C, C. (2007). Perceived discrimination among severly disadvantaged people with HIV infection. Public Health Reports, 122(3), 347–355.PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Stam, R. (2007). PTSD and stress sensitization: A tale of brain and body. Part 1: Human studies. Neuroscience, 31, 530–557. Stam, R. (2007). PTSD and stress sensitization: A tale of brain and body. Part 1: Human studies. Neuroscience, 31, 530–557.
Zurück zum Zitat Steffen, P. R., & Bowden, M. (2006). Sleep disturbance mediates the relationship between perceived racism and depressive symptoms. Ethnicity & Disease, 16(1), 16–21. Steffen, P. R., & Bowden, M. (2006). Sleep disturbance mediates the relationship between perceived racism and depressive symptoms. Ethnicity & Disease, 16(1), 16–21.
Zurück zum Zitat Stetler, C., Chen, E., & Miller, G. E. (2006). Written disclosure of experiences with racial discrimination and antibody response to an influenza vaccine. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 13(1), 60–68. doi:10.1207/s15327558ijbm1301_8.PubMed Stetler, C., Chen, E., & Miller, G. E. (2006). Written disclosure of experiences with racial discrimination and antibody response to an influenza vaccine. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 13(1), 60–68. doi:10.​1207/​s15327558ijbm130​1_​8.PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Stevens, G. W., Vollebergh, W. A., Pels, T. V., & Crinjnen, A. A. (2005a). Predicting externalizing problems in Moroccan immigrant adolescents in the Netherlands. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 40(7), 571–579. doi:10.1007/s00127-005-0926-x.PubMed Stevens, G. W., Vollebergh, W. A., Pels, T. V., & Crinjnen, A. A. (2005a). Predicting externalizing problems in Moroccan immigrant adolescents in the Netherlands. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 40(7), 571–579. doi:10.​1007/​s00127-005-0926-x.PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Stevens, G. W., Vollebergh, W. A., Pels, T. V., & Crinjnen, A. A. (2005b). Predicting internalizing problems in Moroccan immigrant adolescents in the Netherlands. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 40, 1003–10011. doi:10.1007/s00127-005-0988-9.PubMed Stevens, G. W., Vollebergh, W. A., Pels, T. V., & Crinjnen, A. A. (2005b). Predicting internalizing problems in Moroccan immigrant adolescents in the Netherlands. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 40, 1003–10011. doi:10.​1007/​s00127-005-0988-9.PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Sujoldzic, A., Peternel, L., Kulenovic, T., & Terzic, R. (2006). Social determinants of health—a comparative study of Bosnian adolescents in different cultural contexts. Collegium Antropologicum, 30(4), 703–711.PubMed Sujoldzic, A., Peternel, L., Kulenovic, T., & Terzic, R. (2006). Social determinants of health—a comparative study of Bosnian adolescents in different cultural contexts. Collegium Antropologicum, 30(4), 703–711.PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Tabibnia, G., Satpute, A. B., & Lieberman, M. D. (2008). The sunny side of fairness: Preference for fairness activates reward circuitry (and disregarding unfairness activates self-control circuitry). Psychological Science, 19, 339–347. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02091.x.PubMed Tabibnia, G., Satpute, A. B., & Lieberman, M. D. (2008). The sunny side of fairness: Preference for fairness activates reward circuitry (and disregarding unfairness activates self-control circuitry). Psychological Science, 19, 339–347. doi:10.​1111/​j.​1467-9280.​2008.​02091.​x.PubMed
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Metadaten
Titel
Discrimination and racial disparities in health: evidence and needed research
verfasst von
David R. Williams
Selina A. Mohammed
Publikationsdatum
01.02.2009
Verlag
Springer US
Erschienen in
Journal of Behavioral Medicine / Ausgabe 1/2009
Print ISSN: 0160-7715
Elektronische ISSN: 1573-3521
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-008-9185-0

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