Skip to main content
Erschienen in: Metabolic Brain Disease 2/2013

01.06.2013 | Original Paper

In vivo studies of brain metabolism in animal models of Hepatic Encephalopathy using 1H Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy

verfasst von: Cristina Cudalbu

Erschienen in: Metabolic Brain Disease | Ausgabe 2/2013

Einloggen, um Zugang zu erhalten

Abstract

Hepatic encephalopathy (HE) is a common and severe neuropsychiatric complication present in acute and chronic liver disease. The unique advantages of high field 1H MRS provide a method for assessing pathogenic mechanism, diagnosis and monitoring of HE, as well as for treatment assessment or recovery after liver transplantation, in a reproducible and reliable non-invasive way. The purpose of the present review is to present some new features of in vivo proton Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (1H MRS) at high magnetic fields combined with some basic requirements for reliable metabolic profiling. Finally, in vivo applications of 1H MRS in different HE animal models are presented.
Literatur
Zurück zum Zitat Albrecht J, Norenberg MD (2006) Glutamine: a Trojan horse in ammonia neurotoxicity. Hepatology 44(4):788–794PubMedCrossRef Albrecht J, Norenberg MD (2006) Glutamine: a Trojan horse in ammonia neurotoxicity. Hepatology 44(4):788–794PubMedCrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Bates TE, Williams SR, Kauppinen RA, Gadian DG (1989) Observation of cerebral metabolites in an animal-model of acute liver-failure invivo - a H-1 and P-31 nuclear magnetic-resonance study. J Neurochem 53(1):102–110PubMedCrossRef Bates TE, Williams SR, Kauppinen RA, Gadian DG (1989) Observation of cerebral metabolites in an animal-model of acute liver-failure invivo - a H-1 and P-31 nuclear magnetic-resonance study. J Neurochem 53(1):102–110PubMedCrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Berl S, Takagaki G, Clarke DD, Waelsch H (1962) Metabolic compartments in vivo. Ammonia and glutamic acid metabolism in brain and liver. J Biol Chem 237:2562–2569PubMed Berl S, Takagaki G, Clarke DD, Waelsch H (1962) Metabolic compartments in vivo. Ammonia and glutamic acid metabolism in brain and liver. J Biol Chem 237:2562–2569PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Bosman DK, Deutz NE, De Graaf AA, van den Hulst RW, Van Eijk HM, Bovee WM, Maas MA, Jorning GG, Chamuleau RA (1990) Changes in brain metabolism during hyperammonemia and acute liver failure: results of a comparative 1H-NMR spectroscopy and biochemical investigation. Hepatology 12(2):281–290PubMedCrossRef Bosman DK, Deutz NE, De Graaf AA, van den Hulst RW, Van Eijk HM, Bovee WM, Maas MA, Jorning GG, Chamuleau RA (1990) Changes in brain metabolism during hyperammonemia and acute liver failure: results of a comparative 1H-NMR spectroscopy and biochemical investigation. Hepatology 12(2):281–290PubMedCrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Braissant O, McLin VA, Cudalbu C (2012) Ammonia toxicity to the brain. J Inherit Metab Dis Oct 30. [Epub ahead of print] Braissant O, McLin VA, Cudalbu C (2012) Ammonia toxicity to the brain. J Inherit Metab Dis Oct 30. [Epub ahead of print]
Zurück zum Zitat Brand A, Richter-Landsberg C, Leibfritz D (1993) Multinuclear NMR studies on the energy metabolism of glial and neuronal cells. Dev Neurosci 15(3–5):289–298PubMedCrossRef Brand A, Richter-Landsberg C, Leibfritz D (1993) Multinuclear NMR studies on the energy metabolism of glial and neuronal cells. Dev Neurosci 15(3–5):289–298PubMedCrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Brusilow SW, Traystman R (1986) Hepatic encephalopathy. N Engl J Med 314(12):786–787, author reply 787PubMed Brusilow SW, Traystman R (1986) Hepatic encephalopathy. N Engl J Med 314(12):786–787, author reply 787PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Brusilow SW, Koehler RC, Traystman RJ, Cooper AJ (2010) Astrocyte glutamine synthetase: importance in hyperammonemic syndromes and potential target for therapy. Neurotherapeutics 7(4):452–470PubMedCrossRef Brusilow SW, Koehler RC, Traystman RJ, Cooper AJ (2010) Astrocyte glutamine synthetase: importance in hyperammonemic syndromes and potential target for therapy. Neurotherapeutics 7(4):452–470PubMedCrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Butterworth RF (2003) Pathogenesis of hepatic encephalopathy: new insights from neuroimaging and molecular studies. J Hepatol 39(2):278–285PubMedCrossRef Butterworth RF (2003) Pathogenesis of hepatic encephalopathy: new insights from neuroimaging and molecular studies. J Hepatol 39(2):278–285PubMedCrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Cagnon L, Braissant O (2007) Hyperammonemia-induced toxicity for the developing central nervous system. Brain Res Rev 56(1):183–197PubMedCrossRef Cagnon L, Braissant O (2007) Hyperammonemia-induced toxicity for the developing central nervous system. Brain Res Rev 56(1):183–197PubMedCrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Caudle SE, Katzenstein JM, Karpen SJ, McLin VA (2010) Language and motor skills are impaired in infants with biliary atresia before transplantation. J Pediatr 156(6):936–940, 940 e931PubMedCrossRef Caudle SE, Katzenstein JM, Karpen SJ, McLin VA (2010) Language and motor skills are impaired in infants with biliary atresia before transplantation. J Pediatr 156(6):936–940, 940 e931PubMedCrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Cauli O, Lopez-Larrubia P, Rodrigues TB, Cerdan S, Felipo V (2007) Magnetic resonance analysis of the effects of acute ammonia intoxication on rat brain. Role of NMDA receptors. J Neurochem 103(4):1334–1343PubMedCrossRef Cauli O, Lopez-Larrubia P, Rodrigues TB, Cerdan S, Felipo V (2007) Magnetic resonance analysis of the effects of acute ammonia intoxication on rat brain. Role of NMDA receptors. J Neurochem 103(4):1334–1343PubMedCrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Cauli O, Lopez-Larrubia P, Rodrigo R, Agusti A, Boix J, Nieto-Charques L, Cerdan S, Felipo V (2011) Brain region-selective mechanisms contribute to the progression of cerebral alterations in acute liver failure in rats. Gastroenterology 140(2):638–645PubMedCrossRef Cauli O, Lopez-Larrubia P, Rodrigo R, Agusti A, Boix J, Nieto-Charques L, Cerdan S, Felipo V (2011) Brain region-selective mechanisms contribute to the progression of cerebral alterations in acute liver failure in rats. Gastroenterology 140(2):638–645PubMedCrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Chatauret N, Zwingmann C, Rose C, Leibfritz D, Butterworth RF (2003) Effects of hypothermia on brain glucose metabolism in acute liver failure: a H/C-nuclear magnetic resonance study. Gastroenterology 125(3):815–824PubMedCrossRef Chatauret N, Zwingmann C, Rose C, Leibfritz D, Butterworth RF (2003) Effects of hypothermia on brain glucose metabolism in acute liver failure: a H/C-nuclear magnetic resonance study. Gastroenterology 125(3):815–824PubMedCrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Chavarria L, Oria M, Romero-Gimenez J, Alonso J, Lope-Piedrafita S, Cordoba J (2010) Diffusion tensor imaging supports the cytotoxic origin of brain edema in a rat model of acute liver failure. Gastroenterology 138(4):1566–1573PubMedCrossRef Chavarria L, Oria M, Romero-Gimenez J, Alonso J, Lope-Piedrafita S, Cordoba J (2010) Diffusion tensor imaging supports the cytotoxic origin of brain edema in a rat model of acute liver failure. Gastroenterology 138(4):1566–1573PubMedCrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Cooper AJ (2011) 13 N as a tracer for studying glutamate metabolism. Neurochem Int 59(4):456–464PubMedCrossRef Cooper AJ (2011) 13 N as a tracer for studying glutamate metabolism. Neurochem Int 59(4):456–464PubMedCrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Cooper AJ (2012) The role of glutamine synthetase and glutamate dehydrogenase in cerebral ammonia homeostasis. Neurochem Res 37(11):2439–2455PubMedCrossRef Cooper AJ (2012) The role of glutamine synthetase and glutamate dehydrogenase in cerebral ammonia homeostasis. Neurochem Res 37(11):2439–2455PubMedCrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Cooper AJ, Plum F (1987) Biochemistry and physiology of brain ammonia. Physiol Rev 67(2):440–519PubMed Cooper AJ, Plum F (1987) Biochemistry and physiology of brain ammonia. Physiol Rev 67(2):440–519PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Cordoba J (1996) Glutamine, myo-inositol, and brain edema in acute liver failure. Hepatology 23(5):1291–1292PubMedCrossRef Cordoba J (1996) Glutamine, myo-inositol, and brain edema in acute liver failure. Hepatology 23(5):1291–1292PubMedCrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Cordoba J, Gottstein J, Blei AT (1996) Glutamine, myo-inositol, and organic brain osmolytes after portocaval anastomosis in the rat: implications for ammonia-induced brain edema. Hepatology 24(4):919–923. doi:10.1002/hep.510240427 PubMed Cordoba J, Gottstein J, Blei AT (1996) Glutamine, myo-inositol, and organic brain osmolytes after portocaval anastomosis in the rat: implications for ammonia-induced brain edema. Hepatology 24(4):919–923. doi:10.​1002/​hep.​510240427 PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Cordoba J, Gottstein J, Blei AT (1998) Chronic hyponatremia exacerbates ammonia-induced brain edema in rats after portacaval anastomosis. J Hepatol 29(4):589–594PubMedCrossRef Cordoba J, Gottstein J, Blei AT (1998) Chronic hyponatremia exacerbates ammonia-induced brain edema in rats after portacaval anastomosis. J Hepatol 29(4):589–594PubMedCrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Cordoba J, Alonso J, Rovira A, Jacas C, Sanpedro F, Castells L, Vargas V, Margarit C, Kulisewsky J, Esteban R, Guardia J (2001) The development of low-grade cerebral edema in cirrhosis is supported by the evolution of (1)H-magnetic resonance abnormalities after liver transplantation. J Hepatol 35(5):598–604PubMedCrossRef Cordoba J, Alonso J, Rovira A, Jacas C, Sanpedro F, Castells L, Vargas V, Margarit C, Kulisewsky J, Esteban R, Guardia J (2001) The development of low-grade cerebral edema in cirrhosis is supported by the evolution of (1)H-magnetic resonance abnormalities after liver transplantation. J Hepatol 35(5):598–604PubMedCrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Cordoba J, Sanpedro F, Alonso J, Rovira A (2002) 1H magnetic resonance in the study of hepatic encephalopathy in humans. Metab Brain Dis 17(4):415–429PubMedCrossRef Cordoba J, Sanpedro F, Alonso J, Rovira A (2002) 1H magnetic resonance in the study of hepatic encephalopathy in humans. Metab Brain Dis 17(4):415–429PubMedCrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Cudalbu C, Cavassila S, Rabeson H, van Ormondt D, Graveron-Demilly D (2008) Influence of measured and simulated basis sets on metabolite concentration estimates. NMR Biomed 21(6):627–636PubMedCrossRef Cudalbu C, Cavassila S, Rabeson H, van Ormondt D, Graveron-Demilly D (2008) Influence of measured and simulated basis sets on metabolite concentration estimates. NMR Biomed 21(6):627–636PubMedCrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Cudalbu C, Mlynarik V, Xin L, Gruetter R (2009) Comparison of T1 relaxation times of the neurochemical profile in rat brain at 9.4 tesla and 14.1 tesla. Magn Reson Med 62(4):862–867PubMedCrossRef Cudalbu C, Mlynarik V, Xin L, Gruetter R (2009) Comparison of T1 relaxation times of the neurochemical profile in rat brain at 9.4 tesla and 14.1 tesla. Magn Reson Med 62(4):862–867PubMedCrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Cudalbu C, Mlynárik V, Lanz B, Frenkel H, Costers N, Gruetter R (2010) Imaging glutamine synthesis rates in the hyperammonemic rat brain. In: Proc Intl Soc Mag Reson Med 18:3324 Cudalbu C, Mlynárik V, Lanz B, Frenkel H, Costers N, Gruetter R (2010) Imaging glutamine synthesis rates in the hyperammonemic rat brain. In: Proc Intl Soc Mag Reson Med 18:3324
Zurück zum Zitat Cudalbu C, Braissant O, Lepore M, Gruetter R, McLin VA (2012a) Brain osmolytes and brain edema in a rat model of chronic liver failure: in vivo longitudinal 1H spectroscopic imaging and diffusion tensor imaging studies at 9.4T. 15th ISHEN Symposium O7 Cudalbu C, Braissant O, Lepore M, Gruetter R, McLin VA (2012a) Brain osmolytes and brain edema in a rat model of chronic liver failure: in vivo longitudinal 1H spectroscopic imaging and diffusion tensor imaging studies at 9.4T. 15th ISHEN Symposium O7
Zurück zum Zitat Cudalbu C, Lanz B, Duarte JM, Morgenthaler FD, Pilloud Y, Mlynarik V, Gruetter R (2012b) Cerebral glutamine metabolism under hyperammonemia determined in vivo by localized (1)H and (15)N NMR spectroscopy. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 32(4):696–708PubMedCrossRef Cudalbu C, Lanz B, Duarte JM, Morgenthaler FD, Pilloud Y, Mlynarik V, Gruetter R (2012b) Cerebral glutamine metabolism under hyperammonemia determined in vivo by localized (1)H and (15)N NMR spectroscopy. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 32(4):696–708PubMedCrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Cudalbu C, Mlynarik V, Gruetter R (2012c) Handling macromolecule signals in the quantification of the neurochemical profile. J Alzheimers Dis 31:S101–S115PubMed Cudalbu C, Mlynarik V, Gruetter R (2012c) Handling macromolecule signals in the quantification of the neurochemical profile. J Alzheimers Dis 31:S101–S115PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat de Graaf RA, Brown PB, McIntyre S, Nixon TW, Behar KL, Rothman DL (2006) High magnetic field water and metabolite proton T1 and T2 relaxation in rat brain in vivo. Magn Reson Med 56(2):386–394PubMedCrossRef de Graaf RA, Brown PB, McIntyre S, Nixon TW, Behar KL, Rothman DL (2006) High magnetic field water and metabolite proton T1 and T2 relaxation in rat brain in vivo. Magn Reson Med 56(2):386–394PubMedCrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Desjardins P, Du T, Jiang W, Peng L, Butterworth RF (2012) Pathogenesis of hepatic encephalopathy and brain edema in acute liver failure: role of glutamine redefined. Neurochem Int 60(7):690–696PubMedCrossRef Desjardins P, Du T, Jiang W, Peng L, Butterworth RF (2012) Pathogenesis of hepatic encephalopathy and brain edema in acute liver failure: role of glutamine redefined. Neurochem Int 60(7):690–696PubMedCrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Fitzpatrick SM, Hetherington HP, Behar KL, Shulman RG (1989) Effects of acute hyperammonemia on cerebral amino acid metabolism and pHi in vivo, measured by 1H and 31P nuclear magnetic resonance. J Neurochem 52(3):741–749PubMedCrossRef Fitzpatrick SM, Hetherington HP, Behar KL, Shulman RG (1989) Effects of acute hyperammonemia on cerebral amino acid metabolism and pHi in vivo, measured by 1H and 31P nuclear magnetic resonance. J Neurochem 52(3):741–749PubMedCrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Haussinger D, Kircheis G, Fischer R, Schliess F, vom Dahl S (2000) Hepatic encephalopathy in chronic liver disease: a clinical manifestation of astrocyte swelling and low-grade cerebral edema? J Hepatol 32(6):1035–1038PubMedCrossRef Haussinger D, Kircheis G, Fischer R, Schliess F, vom Dahl S (2000) Hepatic encephalopathy in chronic liver disease: a clinical manifestation of astrocyte swelling and low-grade cerebral edema? J Hepatol 32(6):1035–1038PubMedCrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Kreis R, Farrow N, Ross BD (1991) Localized 1H NMR spectroscopy in patients with chronic hepatic encephalopathy. Analysis of changes in cerebral glutamine, choline and inositols. NMR Biomed 4(2):109–116PubMedCrossRef Kreis R, Farrow N, Ross BD (1991) Localized 1H NMR spectroscopy in patients with chronic hepatic encephalopathy. Analysis of changes in cerebral glutamine, choline and inositols. NMR Biomed 4(2):109–116PubMedCrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Kreis R, Ross BD, Farrow NA, Ackerman Z (1992) Metabolic disorders of the brain in chronic hepatic encephalopathy detected with H-1 MR spectroscopy. Radiology 182(1):19–27PubMed Kreis R, Ross BD, Farrow NA, Ackerman Z (1992) Metabolic disorders of the brain in chronic hepatic encephalopathy detected with H-1 MR spectroscopy. Radiology 182(1):19–27PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Leke R, Bak LK, Anker M, Melo TM, Sorensen M, Keiding S, Vilstrup H, Ott P, Portela LV, Sonnewald U, Schousboe A, Waagepetersen HS (2011) Detoxification of ammonia in mouse cortical GABAergic cell cultures increases neuronal oxidative metabolism and reveals an emerging role for release of glucose-derived alanine. Neurotox Res 19(3):496–510PubMedCrossRef Leke R, Bak LK, Anker M, Melo TM, Sorensen M, Keiding S, Vilstrup H, Ott P, Portela LV, Sonnewald U, Schousboe A, Waagepetersen HS (2011) Detoxification of ammonia in mouse cortical GABAergic cell cultures increases neuronal oxidative metabolism and reveals an emerging role for release of glucose-derived alanine. Neurotox Res 19(3):496–510PubMedCrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat McPhail MJ, Taylor-Robinson SD (2010) The role of magnetic resonance imaging and spectroscopy in hepatic encephalopathy. Metab Brain Dis 25(1):65–72PubMedCrossRef McPhail MJ, Taylor-Robinson SD (2010) The role of magnetic resonance imaging and spectroscopy in hepatic encephalopathy. Metab Brain Dis 25(1):65–72PubMedCrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Mekle R, Mlynarik V, Gambarota G, Hergt M, Krueger G, Gruetter R (2009) MR spectroscopy of the human brain with enhanced signal intensity at ultrashort echo times on a clinical platform at 3 T and 7 T. Magn Reson Med 61(6):1279–1285PubMedCrossRef Mekle R, Mlynarik V, Gambarota G, Hergt M, Krueger G, Gruetter R (2009) MR spectroscopy of the human brain with enhanced signal intensity at ultrashort echo times on a clinical platform at 3 T and 7 T. Magn Reson Med 61(6):1279–1285PubMedCrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Mlynarik V, Cudalbu C, Xin L, Gruetter R (2008a) 1H NMR spectroscopy of rat brain in vivo at 14.1Tesla: improvements in quantification of the neurochemical profile. J Magn Reson 194(2):163–168PubMedCrossRef Mlynarik V, Cudalbu C, Xin L, Gruetter R (2008a) 1H NMR spectroscopy of rat brain in vivo at 14.1Tesla: improvements in quantification of the neurochemical profile. J Magn Reson 194(2):163–168PubMedCrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Mlynarik V, Kohler I, Gambarota G, Vaslin A, Clarke PG, Gruetter R (2008b) Quantitative proton spectroscopic imaging of the neurochemical profile in rat brain with microliter resolution at ultra-short echo times. Magn Reson Med 59(1):52–58PubMedCrossRef Mlynarik V, Kohler I, Gambarota G, Vaslin A, Clarke PG, Gruetter R (2008b) Quantitative proton spectroscopic imaging of the neurochemical profile in rat brain with microliter resolution at ultra-short echo times. Magn Reson Med 59(1):52–58PubMedCrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Norenberg MD (1979) Distribution of glutamine synthetase in the rat central nervous system. J Histochem Cytochem 27(3):756–762PubMedCrossRef Norenberg MD (1979) Distribution of glutamine synthetase in the rat central nervous system. J Histochem Cytochem 27(3):756–762PubMedCrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Norenberg MD, Rama Rao KV, Jayakumar AR (2009) Signaling factors in the mechanism of ammonia neurotoxicity. Metab Brain Dis 24(1):103–117PubMedCrossRef Norenberg MD, Rama Rao KV, Jayakumar AR (2009) Signaling factors in the mechanism of ammonia neurotoxicity. Metab Brain Dis 24(1):103–117PubMedCrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Nyberg SL, Cerra FB, Gruetter R (1998) Brain lactate by magnetic resonance spectroscopy during fulminant hepatic failure in the dog. Liver Transpl Surg 4(2):158–165PubMedCrossRef Nyberg SL, Cerra FB, Gruetter R (1998) Brain lactate by magnetic resonance spectroscopy during fulminant hepatic failure in the dog. Liver Transpl Surg 4(2):158–165PubMedCrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Rama Rao KV, Jayakumar AR, Norenberg MD (2012) Glutamine in the pathogenesis of acute hepatic encephalopathy. Neurochem Int 61(4):575–580PubMedCrossRef Rama Rao KV, Jayakumar AR, Norenberg MD (2012) Glutamine in the pathogenesis of acute hepatic encephalopathy. Neurochem Int 61(4):575–580PubMedCrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Ross BD, Jacobson S, Villamil F, Korula J, Kreis R, Ernst T, Shonk T, Moats RA (1994) Subclinical hepatic encephalopathy: proton MR spectroscopic abnormalities. Radiology 193(2):457–463PubMed Ross BD, Jacobson S, Villamil F, Korula J, Kreis R, Ernst T, Shonk T, Moats RA (1994) Subclinical hepatic encephalopathy: proton MR spectroscopic abnormalities. Radiology 193(2):457–463PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Rovira A, Alonso J, Cordoba J (2008) MR imaging findings in hepatic encephalopathy. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 29(9):1612–1621PubMedCrossRef Rovira A, Alonso J, Cordoba J (2008) MR imaging findings in hepatic encephalopathy. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 29(9):1612–1621PubMedCrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Shen J, Sibson NR, Cline G, Behar KL, Rothman DL, Shulman RG (1998) 15 N-NMR spectroscopy studies of ammonia transport and glutamine synthesis in the hyperammonemic rat brain. Dev Neurosci 20(4–5):434–443PubMedCrossRef Shen J, Sibson NR, Cline G, Behar KL, Rothman DL, Shulman RG (1998) 15 N-NMR spectroscopy studies of ammonia transport and glutamine synthesis in the hyperammonemic rat brain. Dev Neurosci 20(4–5):434–443PubMedCrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Spahr L, Burkhard PR, Grotzsch H, Hadengue A (2002) Clinical significance of basal ganglia alterations at brain MRI and 1H MRS in cirrhosis and role in the pathogenesis of hepatic encephalopathy. Metab Brain Dis 17(4):399–413PubMedCrossRef Spahr L, Burkhard PR, Grotzsch H, Hadengue A (2002) Clinical significance of basal ganglia alterations at brain MRI and 1H MRS in cirrhosis and role in the pathogenesis of hepatic encephalopathy. Metab Brain Dis 17(4):399–413PubMedCrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Tkac I, Gruetter R (2005) Methodology of H NMR spectroscopy of the human brain at very high magnetic fields. Appl Magn Reson 29(1):139–157PubMedCrossRef Tkac I, Gruetter R (2005) Methodology of H NMR spectroscopy of the human brain at very high magnetic fields. Appl Magn Reson 29(1):139–157PubMedCrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Tkac I, Oz G, Adriany G, Ugurbil K, Gruetter R (2009) In vivo 1H NMR spectroscopy of the human brain at high magnetic fields: metabolite quantification at 4 T vs. 7 T. Magn Reson Med 62(4):868–879PubMedCrossRef Tkac I, Oz G, Adriany G, Ugurbil K, Gruetter R (2009) In vivo 1H NMR spectroscopy of the human brain at high magnetic fields: metabolite quantification at 4 T vs. 7 T. Magn Reson Med 62(4):868–879PubMedCrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Urenjak J, Williams SR, Gadian DG, Noble M (1993) Proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy unambiguously identifies different neural cell types. J Neurosci 13(3):981–989PubMed Urenjak J, Williams SR, Gadian DG, Noble M (1993) Proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy unambiguously identifies different neural cell types. J Neurosci 13(3):981–989PubMed
Zurück zum Zitat Williams S (1999) Cerebral amino acids studied by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy in vivo. Prog Nucl Magn Reson Spectrosc 34(3–4):301–326CrossRef Williams S (1999) Cerebral amino acids studied by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy in vivo. Prog Nucl Magn Reson Spectrosc 34(3–4):301–326CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Zwingmann C (2007) The anaplerotic flux and ammonia detoxification in hepatic encephalopathy. Metab Brain Dis 22(3–4):235–249PubMedCrossRef Zwingmann C (2007) The anaplerotic flux and ammonia detoxification in hepatic encephalopathy. Metab Brain Dis 22(3–4):235–249PubMedCrossRef
Metadaten
Titel
In vivo studies of brain metabolism in animal models of Hepatic Encephalopathy using 1H Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
verfasst von
Cristina Cudalbu
Publikationsdatum
01.06.2013
Verlag
Springer US
Erschienen in
Metabolic Brain Disease / Ausgabe 2/2013
Print ISSN: 0885-7490
Elektronische ISSN: 1573-7365
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11011-012-9368-9

Weitere Artikel der Ausgabe 2/2013

Metabolic Brain Disease 2/2013 Zur Ausgabe

Leitlinien kompakt für die Neurologie

Mit medbee Pocketcards sicher entscheiden.

Seit 2022 gehört die medbee GmbH zum Springer Medizin Verlag

Update Neurologie

Bestellen Sie unseren Fach-Newsletter und bleiben Sie gut informiert.