Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Content Analysis of Gender Roles in Media: Where Are We Now and Where Should We Go?

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Sex Roles Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This paper provides a commentary regarding the quantitative content analyses of gender roles in media published in the two special issues of Sex Roles (Rudy et al. 2010a, 2011). A few themes and some overarching lessons emerge from the wide variety of data presented. First, it is clear that women are under-represented across a range of media and settings. Second, when women are portrayed, it is often in a circumscribed and negative manner. Women are often sexualized—typically by showing them in scanty or provocative clothing. Women are also subordinated in various ways, as indicated by their facial expressions, body positions, and other factors. Finally, they are shown in traditionally feminine (i.e., stereotyped) roles. Women are portrayed as nonprofessionals, homemakers, wives or parents, and sexual gatekeepers. Although the studies generally support these conclusions, some interesting moderating factors are identified, such as race. It is suggested that next steps involve the development of theory and a body of empirical evidence regarding the effects of exposure to under-representation of women. Data concerning the effects of exposure to sexualized or stereotypical portrayals on young audiences is also lacking. Finally, content analyses of new media, including those created and distributed by users, are recommended as a next step. It is concluded that, while increasing the representation of women in media may be valuable, it is also critical that the manner in which they are portrayed be simultaneously considered to avoid increasing negative or stereotypical depictions that may be particularly harmful to viewers.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • American Psychological Association, Task Force on the Sexualization of Girls. (2010). Report of the APA Task Force on the Sexualization of Girls. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/pi/women/programs/girls/report-full.pdf.

  • Bandura, A. (2002). Social cognitive theory of mass communication. In J. Bryant & D. Zillmann (Eds.), Media effects: Advances in theory and research (2nd ed., pp. 121–154). Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bird, C. E., & Rieker, P. P. (1999). Gender matters: An integrated model for understanding men’s and women’s health. Social Science & Medicine, 48, 745–755. doi:10.1016/S0277-9536(98)00402-X.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brodie, M., Kjellson, N., Hoff, T., & Parker, M. (1999). Perceptions of Latinos, African Americans, and Whites on media as a health information source. Howard Journal of Communications, 10, 147–167.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, J. D., L’Engle, K. L., Pardun, C. J., Guo, G., & Jackson, C. (2006). Sexy media matter: Exposure to sexual content in music, movies, television, and magazines predicts black and white adolescents’ sexual behavior. Pediatrics, 117, 1018–1027. doi:10.1542/peds.2005-1406.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Calvert, S. L., & Huston, A. C. (1987). Television and children’s gender schemata. In L. S. Liben & M. L. Signorella (Eds.), Children’s gender schemata (pp. 75–88). San Francisco: Jossey Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Collins, R. L., Elliott, M. N., Berry, S. H., Kanouse, D. E., Kunkel, D., Hunter, S. B., et al. (2004). Watching sex on television predicts adolescent initiation of sexual behavior. Pediatrics, 114, e280–e289. doi:10.1542/peds.2003-1065-L.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dal Cin, S., Zanna, M. P., & Fong, G. T. (2004). Narrative persuasion and overcoming resistance. In E. S. Knowles & J. A. Linn (Eds.), Resistance and persuasion (pp. 175–191). Mahwah: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dal Cin, S., Gibson, B., Zanna, M. P., & Fong, G. T. (2007). Smoking in movies: Implicit associations of smoking with the self, and intentions to smoke. Psychological Science, 18, 559–563. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01939.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Das, M. (2010). Gender role portrayals in Indian television ads. Sex Roles. doi:10.1007/s11199-010-9750-1. this issue.

    Google Scholar 

  • Desmond, R., & Danilewicz, A. (2010). Women are on, but not in, the news: Gender roles in local television news. Sex Roles, 62, 822–829. doi:10.1007/s11199-009-9686-5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Downs, E., & Smith, S. L. (2010). Keeping abreast of hypersexuality: A video game character content analysis. Sex Roles, 62, 721–733. doi:10.1007/s11199-009-9637-1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Finger, J., Unz, D. C., & Schwab, F. (2010). Crime scene investigation: The chief inspectors’ display rules. Sex Roles, 62, 798–809. doi:10.1007/s11199-009-9722-5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fox News (2007). Report: Sexual images psychologically damaging young girls. Retrieved from http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,252859,00.html

  • Fullerton, H.N. Jr. (1999). Labor force participation: 75 years of change, 1950-98 and 1998–2025. Monthly Labor Review, 122.

  • Gerbner, G., & Signorielli, N. (1979). Women and minorities in television drama 1969–1978. Philadelphia: The Annenberg School of Communications, University of Pennsylvania.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gilpatric, K. (2010). Violent female action characters in contemporary American cinema. Sex Roles, 62, 734–746. doi:10.1007/s11199-010-9757-7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grabe, S., Ward, L. M., & Hyde, J. S. (2008). The role of the media in body image concerns among women: A meta-analysis of experimental and correlational studies. Psychological Bulletin, 134, 460–476. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.134.3.460.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Greenberg, B. S., & Atkin, C. (1982). Learning about minorities from television: A research agenda. In G. Berry & G. Mitchell-Kerman (Eds.), Television and the socialization of the minority child (pp. 215–243). New York: Academic.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenberg, B. S., Mastro, D., & Brand, J. E. (2002). Minorities and the mass media: Television into the 21st century. In J. Bryant & D. Zillmann (Eds.), Media effects: Advances in theory and research (2nd ed., pp. 333–351). Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heatherton, T. F., & Sargent, J. D. (2009). Does watching smoking in movies promote teenage smoking? Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18, 63–67. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2009.01610.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Herek, G. M. (2002). Gender gaps in public opinion about lesbians and gay men. Public Opinion Quarterly, 66, 40–66. doi:10.1086/338409.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hether, J., & Murphy, S. T. (2010). Sex roles in health storylines on prime time television: A content analysis. Sex Roles, 62, 810–821. doi:10.1007/s11199-009-9654-0.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huesmann, L. R. (2007). The impact of electronic media violence: Scientific theory and research. Journal of Adolescent Health, 41, S6–S13. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2007.09.005.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kahlenberg, S. G., & Hein, M. M. (2010). Progression on Nickelodeon? Gender-role stereotypes in toy commercials. Sex Roles, 62, 830–847. doi:10.1007/s11199-009-9653-1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mager, J., & Helgeson, J. (2010). Fifty years of advertising images: Some changing perspectives on role portrayals along with enduring consistencies. Sex Roles. doi:10.1007/s11199-010-9782-6. this issue.

    Google Scholar 

  • LifesiteNews.com. (2007). Boycott of Dove products urged as nude ads air prime time. Retrieved from http://www.lifesitenews.com/news/archive/ldn/2007/mar/07030501

  • Martino, S. C., Collins, R. L., Elliott, M. N., Strachman, A., Kanouse, D. E., & Berry, S. H. (2006). Exposure to degrading versus non-degrading music lyrics and sexual behavior among youth. Pediatrics, 118, 430–441.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Matud, P. M. (2010). Gender in Spanish daily newspapers. Sex Roles. doi:10.1007/s11199-010-9874-3. this issue.

    Google Scholar 

  • McDermott, S. T., & Greenberg, B. S. (1984). Parents, peers and television as determinants of Black children’s esteem. In R. Bostrom (Ed.), Communication yearbook 8 (pp. 164–177). Beverly Hills: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nam, K., Lee, G., & Hwang, J. (2010). Gender stereotypes depicted by western and Korean advertising models in Korean adolescent girls’ magazines. Sex Roles. doi:10.1007/s11199-010-9878-z. this issue.

    Google Scholar 

  • Neuendorf, K. (2010). Content analysis—A methodological primer for gender research. Sex Roles. doi:10.1007/s11199-010-9893-0. this issue.

    Google Scholar 

  • Neuendorf, K., Gore, T. D., Dalessandro, A., Janstova, P., & Snyder-Suhy, S. (2010). Shaken and stirred: A content analysis of women’s portrayals in James Bond films. Sex Roles, 62, 747–761. doi:10.1007/s11199-009-9644-2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oatley, K. (1996). Inference in narrative and science. In D. R. Olson & N. Torrance (Eds.), Modes of thought: Explorations in culture and cognition (pp. 123–140). New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paek, H., Nelson, M. R., & Vilela, A. M. (2010). Examination of gender-role portrayals in television advertising across seven countries. Sex Roles. doi:10.1007/s11199-010-9850-y. this issue.

    Google Scholar 

  • RAND National Defense Research Institute. (2010). Sexual orientation and U.S. military personnel policy: An update of RAND’s 1993 study. Santa Monica: RAND Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rideout, V. J., Foehr, U. G., & Roberts, D. F. (2010). Generation M2 media in the lives of 8- to 18-year olds. Menlo Park: Kaiser Family Foundation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rudy, R. M., Popova, L., & Linz, D. G. (2010a). Content analysis [Special issue]. Sex Roles, 62, 705–847.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rudy, R. M., Popova, L., & Linz, D. G. (2010b). The context of current content analysis of gender roles: An introduction to a special issue. Sex Roles, 62, 705–720.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rudy, R. M., Popova, L., & Linz, D. G. (2011). Content analysis II [Special issue]. Sex Roles, this issue.

  • Schwartz, J. (2010). Whose voices are heard? Gender, sexual orientation and newspaper sources. Sex Roles. doi:10.1007/s11199-010-9825-z. this issue.

    Google Scholar 

  • Simmons New Media Study (2009). New media study discovers Americans need 38 hours per day to complete their tasks. Experian Simmons Press Center. Retrieved from http://www.smrb.com/web/guest/press-release-new-media-study-discovery.

  • Slater, M. D., & Rouner, D. (2002). Entertainment-education and elaboration likelihood: Understanding the processing of narrative persuasion. Communication Theory, 12, 173–191. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2885.2002.tb00265.x.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, S. L., Pieper, K. M., Granados, A., & Choueiti, M. (2010). Assessing gender-related portrayals in top-grossing G-rated films. Sex Roles, 62, 774–786. doi:10.1007/s11199-009-9736-z.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steele, J. (1996). Teenage sexuality and media practice: Factoring in the influence of family, friends, and school. Journal of Sex Research, 36, 331–342.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Turner, J. S. (2010). Sex and the spectacle of music videos: An examination of the portrayal of race and sexuality in music videos. Sex Roles. doi:10.1007/s11199-010-9766-6. this issue.

    Google Scholar 

  • Twenge, J. M., & Crocker, J. (2002). Race and self-esteem: Meta-analyses comparing Whites, Blacks, Hispanics, Asians, and American Indians and comment on Gray-Little and Hafdahl (2000). Psychological Bulletin, 128, 371–408.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Centers for Disease Control, MMWR. (2009). Differences in prevalence of obesity among Black, White, and Hispanic Adults—United States, 2006–2008. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Reports, 58, 740–744.

    Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2000). Changes in women’s labor force participation in the 20th century.

  • U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2009). Women in the labor force: A databook. (Report No. 1018).

  • Wallis, C. (2010). Performing gender: A content analysis of gender display in music videos. Sex Roles. doi:10.1007/s11199-010-9814-2. this issue.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ward, L. M. (2002). Does television exposure affect emerging adults’ attitudes and assumptions about sexual relationships? Correlational and experimental confirmation. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 31, 1–15. doi:10.1023/A:1014068031532.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Welsh, A. (2010). On the perils of living dangerously in the slasher horror film: Gender differences in the association between sexual activity and survival. Sex Roles, 62, 762–773. doi:10.1007/s11199-010-9762-x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, Y., Dixon, T. L., & Conrad, K. (2010). Female body image as a function of themes in rap music videos: A content analysis. Sex Roles, 62, 787–797. doi:10.1007/s11199-009-9656.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. RAND, 1776 Main Street, Santa Monica, CA, 90407, USA

    Rebecca L. Collins

Authors
  1. Rebecca L. Collins
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Rebecca L. Collins.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Collins, R.L. Content Analysis of Gender Roles in Media: Where Are We Now and Where Should We Go?. Sex Roles 64, 290–298 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-010-9929-5

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-010-9929-5

Keywords

Search

Navigation