Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Quality assessment of supplied drinking water in Jaipur city, India, using PCR-based approach

  • Thematic Issue
  • Published:
Environmental Earth Sciences Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Jaipur city is one of the largest and fast developing cities of state Rajasthan, India. Majority of population in the city depends on piped water supplies for drinking and other domestic purposes. However, limited water resources, rapid industrialization and urbanization had resulted in increased pressure on water availability which in turn has led to deterioration of quality of drinking water. Microbial pathogens are one of the major health risks associated with water. With microorganisms, a primary cause for the occurrence of infectious diseases, the concentrations of harmful bacterial cells should be routinely monitored to maintain microbiological quality control of drinking water. The specific aim of the present study was to assess the microbiological and physicochemical quality of drinking water supplied in Jaipur. Water samples from twelve areas were collected and evaluated for physicochemical contaminants such as pH, electrical conductivity, fluoride, iron, nitrate, residual chlorine, total dissolved solids, total hardness and turbidity. The samples were also evaluated for eight most commonly found bacterial pathogens. Pathogenic bacteria were detected using polymerase chain reaction-based assays. Majority of parameters except few were found to be within bureau of Indian standards safety limits. Of all the bacteria tested, Pseudomonas was the most prominent bacteria and was detected in all locations. Escherichia coli, Aeromonas and Shigella were detected in three of the twelve locations, whereas Campylobacter was detected in two of the locations. Vibrio, Salmonella and Arcobacter were not detected in any of the locations. This approach was rapid, specific and sensitive. This study shows that water quality standards based on the occurrence of specific pathogens enumerated with PCR-based assays could serve as a method of evaluating the biological quality of water. Also, this study confirms the presence of these pathogenic bacteria in drinking water which may pose a serious health risk to consumers. This suggests that proper management of water resources (surface and groundwater) and regular water monitoring are needed. Also water utility operations should be such that quality is not impaired during transmission, storage and distribution of the municipal tap water to the consumer.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9

Similar content being viewed by others

Abbreviations

APHA:

American public health association

BIS:

Bureau of Indian standards

bp:

Base pair

CFU:

Colony-forming unit

cm:

Centimeter

°C:

Degree celsius

dNTP:

Deoxynucleotide triphosphate

DNA:

Deoxyribose nucleic acid

E:

East

EC:

Electrical conductivity

EDTA:

Ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid

EtBr:

Ethidium bromide

h:

Hour

L:

Liter

μg:

Microgram

µl:

Microliter

µM:

Micromolar

μS:

Microsiemens

mg:

Milligram

MgCl2 :

Magnesium chloride

min:

Minute

MLD:

Million liters per day

mM:

Millimolar

N:

North

ng:

Nanogram

NTU:

Nephelometric Turbidity Unit

PBS:

Phosphate-buffered saline

PCR:

Polymerase chain reaction

PHED:

Public Health Engineering Department

pmol:

Picomole

RC:

Residual chlorine

rpm:

Rotations per minute

sec:

Second

SMS:

Sawai ManSingh

sp:

Species

TAE:

Tris Acetate EDTA

TE buffer:

Tris EDTA buffer

TDS:

Total dissolved solids

TH:

Total hardness

Tris:

(Hydroxymethyl) aminomethane

U:

Unit

UV:

Ultraviolet

WHO:

World Health Organization

References

  • Abd-El-Haleem D, Kheiralla ZH, Zaki S, Rushdy AA, Abd-El-Rahiem W (2003) Multiplex-PCR and PCR-RFLP assays to monitor water quality against pathogenic bacteria. J Environ Monit 5:865–870. doi:10.1039/B307476E

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • AbouZakhem B, Hafez R (2015) Heavy metal pollution index for groundwater quality assessment in Damascus Oasis, Syria. Environ Earth Sci 73:6591–6600. doi:10.1007/s12665-014-3882-5

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ahmed W, Huygens F, Goonetilleke A, Gardner T (2008) Real-time PCR detection of pathogenic microorganisms in roof-harvested rainwater in southeast Queensland, Australia. Appl Environ Microbiol 74:5490–5496. doi:10.1128/AEM.00331-08

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aksever F, Karaguzel R, Mutluturk M (2015) Evaluation of groundwater quality and contamination in drinking water basins: a case study of the Senirkent-Uluborlu basin (Isparta-Turkey). Environ Earth Sci 73:1281–1293. doi:10.1007/s12665-014-3483-3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Alam M, Rais S, Aslam M (2012) Hydrochemical investigation and quality assessment of ground water in rural areas of Delhi, India. Environ Earth Sci 66:97–110. doi:10.1007/s12665-011-1210-x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Alaya MB, Saidi S, Zemni T, Zargouni F (2014) Sustainability assessment of deep groundwater for drinking and irrigation use in the Djeffara aquifers (Northern Gabes, south-eastern Tunisia). Environ Earth Sci 71:3387–3421. doi:10.1007/s12665-013-2729-9

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Allen MJ, Edberg SC, Reasoner DJ (2004) Heterotrophic plate count bacteria—what is their significance in drinking water. Int J Food Microbiol 92:265–274. doi:10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2003.08.017

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Al-Qadiri HM, Al-Holy MA, Lin M, Alami NI, Cavinato AG, Rasco BA (2006) Rapid detection and identification of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli as pure and mixed cultures in bottled drinking water using fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and multivariate analysis. J Agric Food Chem 54:5749–5754. doi:10.1021/jf0609734

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Amin R, Ali SS, Anwar Z, Khattak JZK (2012) Microbial analysis of drinking water and water distribution system in new urban Peshawar. Curr Res J Biol Sci 4:731–737

    Google Scholar 

  • Amit D, Jethoo AS, Poonia MP (2012) Impact of drought on urban water supply: a case study of Jaipur city. Int J Eng Innov Technol 1:170–174

    Google Scholar 

  • APHA (1998) Standards methods for the examination of water and wastewater. American Public Health Association, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Barrell RA, Hunter PR, Nichols G (2000) Microbiological standards for water and their relationship to health risk. Commun Dis Public Health 3:8–13

    Google Scholar 

  • Bartram J, Cotruvo J, Exner M, Fricker C, Glasmacher A (2003) Heterotrophic plate counts and drinking water safety: the significance of HPCs for water quality and the human health. IWA Publishing, UK

    Google Scholar 

  • Bej AK, Steffan RJ, DiCesare J, Haff L, Atlas RM (1990) Detection of coliform bacteria in water by polymerase chain reaction and gene probes. Appl Environ Microbiol 56:307–314

    Google Scholar 

  • Berry D, Xi C, Raskin L (2006) Microbial ecology of drinking water distribution system. Curr Opin Biotechnol 17:297–302. doi:10.1016/j.copbio.2006.05.007

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bhatnagar N, Kulshreshtha S, Bhatnagar P (2012) Microbiological analysis of chlorinated water supplied in Jaipur. Univ J Environ Res Technol 2:65–71

    Google Scholar 

  • BIS (2009) Drinking water—specification. Bureau of Indian standards, Geneva. http://bis.org.in/sf/fad/FAD25%282047%29C.pdf. Accessed 14 February 2014

  • Bond T, Huang J, Michael R, Templeton GN (2011) Occurrence and control of nitrogenous disinfection by-products in drinking water—a review. Water Res 45:4341–4354. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2011.05.034

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Botteldoorn N, Heyndrickx M, Rijpens N, Grijspeerdt K, Herman L (2003) Salmonella on pig carcasses: positive pigs and cross contamination in the slaughterhouse. J Appl Microbiol 95:891–903. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2672.2003.02042.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brindha K, Kavitha R (2014) Hydrochemical assessment of surface water and groundwater quality along Uyyakondan channel, South India. Environ Earth Sci. doi:10.1007/s12665-014-3793-5

    Google Scholar 

  • Caylak E (2012a) Health risk assessment for arsenic in water sources of Cankiri province of Turkey. CLEAN Soil Air Water 40:728–734. doi:10.1002/clen.201100439

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Caylak E (2012b) Health risk assessment for trace metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and trihalomethanes in drinking water of Cankiri, Turkey. E J Chem 9:1976–1991. doi:10.1155/2012/172135

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Caylak E, Tokar M (2012a) Investigating chemical and microbiological contaminants in drinking water in regions of Cankiri, Turkey. Environ Earth Sci 67:2015–2025. doi:10.1007/s12665-012-1641-z

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Caylak E, Tokar M (2012b) Metallic and microbial contaminants in drinking water of Cankiri, Turkey. E J Chem 9:608–614. doi:10.1155/2012/720317

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chugh S, Bhasin M, Ola S (2011) Physicochemical characterization of some drinking water samples of Jaipur city. Water Res Dev 1:53–55

    Google Scholar 

  • Delabre K, Cervantes P, Lahoussine V, Roubin M (1998) Detection of viable pathogenic bacteria from water samples by PCR. OECD Workshop Molecular Methods for Safe Drinking Water, Paris

  • Edberg SC, Rice EW, Karlin RJ, Allen MJ (2000) Escherichia coli: the best biological drinking water indicator for public health protection. J Appl Microbiol 88:106–116. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2672.2000.tb05338.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Faruque SM, Khan R, Kamruzzaman M, Yamasaki S, Ahmad QS, Azim T, Nair GB, Takeda Y, Sack D (2002) Isolation of Shigella dysenteriae type 1 and S. flexneri strains from surface waters in Bangladesh: comparative molecular analysis of environmental Shigella isolates versus clinical strains. Appl Environ Microbiol 68:3908–3913

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fong TT, Lipp EK (2005) Enteric viruses of humans and animals in aquatic environments: health risks, detection and potential water quality assessment tools. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 69:357–371. doi:10.1128/MMBR.69.2.357-371.2005

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Foulds IV, Granacki A, Xiao C, Krull UJ, Castle A, Horgen PA (2002) Quantification of microcystin-producing cyanobacteria and E. coli I water by 5′-nuclease PCR. J Appl Microbiol 93:825–834. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2672.2002.01772.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fricker CR (2003) The presence of bacteria in water after regrowth. In: Bartram J, Cotruvo J, Exner M, Fricker C, Glasmacher A (eds) Heterotrophic plate counts and drinking-water safety: the significance of HPCs for water quality and the human health. IWA Publishing, London, pp 49–60

    Google Scholar 

  • Gangil R, Tripathi R, Patyal A, Dutta P, Mathur KN (2013) Bacteriological evaluation of packaged bottled water sold at Jaipur city and its public health significance. Vet World 6:27–30. doi:10.5455/vetworld.2013.27-30

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goldoni A, Golfeto C, Teixeira JB, Blumm G, Wilhelm CM, Teloken F, Bianchi E, Schmitt JL, Gehlen G, Rodrigues MAS, da Silva LB (2014) Cytotoxic and genotoxic evaluation and chemical characterization of sewage treated using activated sludge and a floating emergent-macrophyte filter in a municipal wastewater treatment plant: a case study in Southern Brazil. Environ Earth Sci 72:1503–1509. doi:10.1007/s12665-014-3055-6

    Google Scholar 

  • Juhna T, Birzniece D, Larsson S, Zulenkovs D, Sharipo A, Azevedo NF, Menard-Szczebara F, Castagnet S, Feliers C, Keevil CW (2007) Detection of Escherichia coli in biofilms from pipe samples and coupons in drinking water distribution networks. Appl Environ Microbiol 73:7456–7464. doi:10.1128/AEM.00845-07

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kolmos HJ, Thuesen B, Nielsen SV, Lohmann M, Kristoffersen K, Rosdahl VT (1993) Outbreak of infection in a burns unit due to Pseudomonas aeruginosa originating from contaminated tubing used for irrigation of patients. J Hosp Infect 24:11–21. doi:10.1016/0195-6701(93)90085-E

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kumar S, Gupta AB, Gupta S (2002) Need for revision of nitrates standards for drinking water: a case study of Rajasthan. Indian J Environ Health 44:168–172

    Google Scholar 

  • LEA, CEPT (2005) Draft City Development Plan: Preparation of City Development Plan for Jaipur under Jawaharlal Nehru Urban Renewal Mission, Government of Rajasthan, Jaipur

  • Leurs LJ, Schouten LJ, Mons MN, Goldbohm RA, van den Brandt PA (2010) Relationship between tap water hardness, magnesium and calcium concentration and mortality due to Ischemic heart disease or stroke in the Netherlands. Environ Health Perspect 118:414–420. doi:10.1289/ehp.0900782

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Levantesi C, Bonadonna L, Briancesco R, Grohmann E, Toze S, Tandoi V (2012) Salmonella in surface and drinking water: occurrence and water-mediated transmission. Food Res Int 45:587–602. doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2011.06.037

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maiti SK (2004) Handbook of methods in environmental studies: water and waste water analysis. ABD Publishers, India

    Google Scholar 

  • Marque S, Jacqmin-Gadda H, Dartigues J, Commenges D (2003) Cardiovascular mortality and calcium and magnesium in drinking water: an ecological study in elderly people. Eur J Epideimiol 18:305–309. doi:10.1023/A:1023618728056

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mathur R, Sharma R, Suthar A, Sharma A, Sharma S, Sharma PK (2012) Determination and removal of nitrate in ground water of western Rajasthan: with special reference to Barmer region. J Chem Biol Phys Sci 2:1054–1060

    Google Scholar 

  • Molina F, Lopez-Acedo E, Tabla R, Roa I, Gomez A, Rebollo JE (2015) Improved detection of Escherichia coli and coliform bacteria by multiplex PCR. BMC Biotechnol 15:48–56. doi:10.1186/s12896-015-0168-2

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Momba MN, Malakate VK, Theron J (2006) Abundance of pathogenic Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium and Vibrio cholerae in Nkonkobe drinking water sources. J Water Health 4:289–296. doi:10.2166/wh.2006.011

    Google Scholar 

  • Moreno Y, Botella S, Alonso JL, Ferrus MA, Hernandez M, Hernandez J (2003) Specific detection of Arcobacter and Campylobacter strains in water and sewage by PCR and fluorescent in situ hybridization. Appl Environ Microbiol 69:1181–1186. doi:10.1128/AEM.69.2.1181-1186.2003

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mukhopadhyay UK, Mukhopadhyay A (2002) A low cost rapid, sensitive and reliable PCR-based alternative method for predicting the presence of possible live microbial contaminants in food. Curr Sci 83:53–56

    Google Scholar 

  • Palleroni NJ (2008) The road to the taxonomy of Pseudomonas. In: Cornelis P (ed) Pseudomonas: genomics and molecular biology. Caister Scientific Press, UK, pp 1–18

    Google Scholar 

  • Parsek M, Singh PK (2003) Bacterial biofilms: an emerging link to disease pathogenesis. Annu Rev Microbiol 57:677–701. doi:10.1146/annurev.micro.57.030502.090720

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pindi PK, Yadav PR (2011) Bacterial diversity in potable drinking water of Mahabubnagar district (A.P.) India. Biosci Discovery 2:2229–3469

    Google Scholar 

  • Pirnay JP, De Vos D, Duinslaeger L, Reper P, Vandenvelde C, Cornelis P, Vanderkelen A (2000) Quantitation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa in wound biopsy samples: from bacterial culture to rapid ‘real-time’ polymerase chain reaction. Crit Care 4:255–262

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Polaczyk AL, Narayanan J, Cromeans TL, Hahn D, Roberts JM, Amburgey JE, Hill VR (2008) Ultrafiltration-based techniques for rapid and simultaneous concentration of multiple microbe classes from 100-L tap water samples. J Microbiol Methods 73:92–99. doi:10.1016/j.mimet.2008.02.014

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rathore MS, Sharma L, Singh NP, Opitz-Stapleton S, Chopde S, Singh D, Sabbag L, Moench M (2011) The uncomfortable nexus: water, urbanization and climate change in Jaipur, India. Institute for Social and Environmental Transition-International and Centre for Environmental and Development Studies, Boulder, CO and Jaipur, India

  • Roberts K, Reiner M, Kimberly G (2013) Jalm bhagirathi foundation. Northwestern university research Jaipur in summer, Jaipur. http://www.civil.northwestern.edu/EHE/HTML_KAG/Kimweb/files/Jaipur%20Water%20Resources%20%2801.15.14%29.pdf

  • Samra ZQ, Naseem M, Khan SJ, Dar N, Athar MA (2009) PCR targeting of antibiotic resistant bacteria in public drinking water of Lahore, Metropolitan, Pakistan. Biomed Environ Sci 22:458–463. doi:10.1016/S0895-3988(10)60002-5

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seaman J, Lacey R, Bowman J, Bradley D, May R, Harding C, Weatherall D, Smith D (1994) Health and the environment: the Linacre lectures 1992–3. Oxford University Press, UK

    Google Scholar 

  • Shaban AB, Malkawi HI (2007) Rapid detection of human enteric pathogens (viruses and bacteria) in water resources from Jordan using polymerase chain reaction (PCR). J Appl Sci Res 3:1084–1093

    Google Scholar 

  • Shrimal Y (2012) Jaipur drinks poisonous water. DNA. http://daily.bhaskar.com/article/RAJ-JPR-jaipur-drinks-poisonous-water-2868059.html

  • Shrivastava IC, Sharma B, Kulshristha SK (2005) Sector policy for rural drinking water and sanitation (Draft). Government of Rajasthan, Jaipur. http://www.rajwater.gov.in/sprdws.pdf

  • Singh S, Mosley LM (2003) Trace metal levels in drinking water on Viti-Levu, Fiji islands. S Pac J Nat Sci 21:31–34. doi:10.1071/SP03006

    Google Scholar 

  • Singh K, Singh D, Hundal HS, Khurana MPS (2013) An appraisal of groundwater quality for drinking and irrigation purposes in southern part of Bathinda district of Punjab, northwest India. Environ Earth Sci 70:1841–1851. doi:10.1007/s12665-013-2272-8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sinreich M, Pronk M, Kozel R (2014) Microbiological monitoring and classification of karst springs. Environ Earth Sci 71:563–572. doi:10.1007/s12665-013-2508-7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Srivastava P, Jain N (2012) Assessment of potable water quality of Jaipur and its impact on public health. J Chem Bio Phy Sci 2:2151–2157

    Google Scholar 

  • Stearns J (2009) Supplying clean water to Jaipur: a study of two current government projects. North India culture and development programs, spring. http://digitalcollections.sit.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?Article=1614&context=isp_collection

  • Stevens M, Ashbolt N, Cunliffe D (2003) Review of Coliforms as microbial indicators of drinking water quality-recommendations to change the use of coliforms as microbial indicators of drinking water quality. National health and medical research council. Biotext ltd, Canberra

    Google Scholar 

  • Theron J, Cilliers J, DuPreez M, Brozel VS, Venter SN (2000) Detection of toxigenic Vibrio cholerae from environmental water samples by an enrichment broth cultivation-pit stop semi-nested PCR procedure. J Appl Microbiol 89:539–546

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ultee A, Souvatzi N, Maniadi K, Konig H (2004) Identification of culturable and nonculturable bacterial population in groundwater of a municipal water supply in Germany. J Appl Microbiol 96:560–568. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2672.2004.02174.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Waage AS, Vardund T, Lund V, Kapperud G (1999) Detection of small numbers of Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli cells in environmental water, sewage and food samples by a semi nested PCR assay. Appl Environ Microbiol 65:1636–1643

    Google Scholar 

  • WHO (1997) Guidelines for drinking water quality, 2nd edn., Volume 3—surveillance and control of community supplies. World Health Organization, Geneva. http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/gdwqvol32ed.pdf. Accessed 27 Nov 2013

  • WHO (2004) Guidelines for drinking water quality, 3rd edn., Volume 1: World Health Organization,Geneva. http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/gdwq3_contents.pdf. Accessed 26 Nov 2013

  • WHO (2006) Guidelines for drinking water quality, 1st addendum to 3rd edn., Volume 1: recommendations, World Health Organization, Geneva.http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/gdwq0506.pdf. Accessed 14 Feb 2014

  • WHO (2011) Guidelines for drinking water quality, 4th edn. World Health Organization, Geneva. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2011/9789241548151_eng.pdf. Accessed 14 Feb 2014

  • Yogananth N, Bhakyaraj R, Chanthuru A, Anbalagan T, Nila KM (2009) Detection of virulence gene in Aeromonas hydrophila isolated from fish samples using PCR technique. Glob J Biotech Biochem 4:51–53

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

Department of Science and Technology, Rajasthan, India, provided funding for this research.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Amity University, Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India

    Shivani Chandra

  2. Birla Institute of Scientific Research, Jaipur, India

    Tanushree Saxena, Sampat Nehra & M. Krishna Mohan

Authors
  1. Shivani Chandra
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Tanushree Saxena
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Sampat Nehra
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. M. Krishna Mohan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Shivani Chandra.

Additional information

This article is part of a Topical Collection in Environmental Earth Sciences on “Environmental Problems and Solutions in India”, guest edited by Tanu Jindal.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Chandra, S., Saxena, T., Nehra, S. et al. Quality assessment of supplied drinking water in Jaipur city, India, using PCR-based approach. Environ Earth Sci 75, 153 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-015-4809-5

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-015-4809-5

Keywords

Search

Navigation