Fruit-derived polyphenols have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties and so can enhance exercise performance, since excess reactive oxygen species generation has been implicated in fatigue development, and enhance recovery from intensive exercise due to the involvement of inflammation and oxidative damage within muscle. |
Consumption of ~ 300 mg polyphenols an hour prior to exercise may enhance endurance and repeated sprint performance, most likely due to improved muscle perfusion. |
Supplementation with > 1000 mg polyphenols per day for 3 or more days prior to and following exercise will enhance recovery from exercise-induced muscle damage. |
1 Introduction
2 Polyphenols
Polyphenol family | Example compounds | Dietary source |
---|---|---|
Stilbenes | Resveratrol | Grapes |
Lignans | Enterodiol | Seeds, whole grains, legumes |
Phenolic acids | Cinnamic Benzoic | Caffeic acid–coffee Gallic acid–tea |
Flavonoids Flavanols Flavonols Flavones Flavanones Isoflavones Anthocyanidins Proanthocyanidins Procyanidins | Epicatechin, Catechins Quercetin Luteolin Naringenin and hesperetins Genistein Cyanidin, malvidin, delphinidin B-type dimers Ellagitannins Gallotannins | Cocoa Green tea Onions, apples, deep green vegetables Parsley and other herbs Citrus fruits Soy products, Cherries and berries Cocoa Pomegranate Mango |
2.1 Effects of Polyphenol Supplementation
3 Fruit-derived Polyphenols and Exercise Performance
3.1 Rationale
References | Participant characteristics | Supplementation protocol | Performance task | Effects of polyphenol supplementation |
---|---|---|---|---|
Cases et al. [66] | Recreationally active men (n = 15) Crossover trial | 290 mg PP from green tea, grape and pomegranate 60 min pre-ex | 4 × 30 s all-out cycle sprints with 4-5 min inter-sprint recovery | ↑ Peak and average power output ↑ Erythrocyte catalase and plasma SOD activity ↓ Post-exercise pulse pressure |
Crum et al. [64] | Trained cyclists (n = 8) Crossover trial | 1000 mg pomegranate extract 2.5 h pre-ex (low PP diet consumed) | Time to exhaustion at 100% \({\dot{\text V}}{\text O}_{2}\max\) workload at sea level and 1657 m | = Time to exhaustion ↑ Plasma nitrate concentration ↑ \({\dot{\text V}}{\text O}_{2}\) at altitude |
Roelofs et al. [65] | Recreationally resistance trained (n = 19) Crossover trial | 1000 mg pomegranate extract 30 min pre-ex | 10 × 6 s cycle sprints 30 s recovery Bench press and leg press repetitions to failure @ 80% 1RM | = Average and peak power (CI revealed higher peak s5 and 7 and average s5 power) = Bench press and leg press repetitions ↑ Brachial artery diameter and flow after repetitions to failure and tendency after repeated sprints. |
Trexler et al. [63] | Recreationally active (n = 19) Crossover trial | 1000 mg pomegranate extract 30 min pre-ex | Treadmill runs to exhaustion at 90, 100, 110% \({\dot{\text V}}{\text O}_{2}\max\) (PV) | ↑ Time to exhaustion at 90% and 100% PV ↑ Brachial artery blood flow pre-ex ↑ Brachial artery diameter post-ex |
Decroix et al. [11] | Trained male cyclists (n = 12) Crossover trial | 900 mg cocoa flavanols 1.5 h (TT1) and 3 h (TT2) pre-ex (low PP diet consumed 24 h pre-ex) | Two cycling time trial (equivalent of 30 min @ 75% peak power output) with 100 min passive recovery | = Time trial performance (+ve trend for TT1, p = 0.09) ↑ Total antioxidant capacity (corrected for ↑ uric acid) = Plasma marker oxidative stress (malondialdehyde) = Plasma inflammatory markers (IL1, IL6 and TNF-α) |
Deley et al. [69] | Recreationally active men RCT | 500 mg PP from grape and apple (n = 24) versus placebo (n = 24) Prior evening and 1 h pre-ex | Time to exhaustion at 70% maximum cycling aerobic power | ↑ Time to exhaustion (9.7%) |
Oh et al. [68] | Recreationally active men (n = 20) Crossover trial | 72 mg PP from Ecklonia cava 30 min pre-ex | Incremental maximum treadmill test | ↑ Time to exhaustion Non-significant improvement in \({\dot{\text V}}{\text O}_{2}\max\) (6.5%) |
Keane et al. [67] | Trained cyclists (n = 10) Crossover trial | 60 ml Montmorency cherry concentrate (PP dose not provided) 1.5 h pre-ex | 6 min moderate and 6 min severe intensity cycling continued to exhaustion and on other occasion followed by an all-out 60 s sprint | = Time to exhaustion ↑ Peak power and work done during sprint ↓ Pre-ex systolic blood pressure |
References | Participant characteristics | Supplementation protocol | Performance task | Effects of polyphenol supplementation |
---|---|---|---|---|
Braakhuis et al. [80] | Trained female runners (n = 23) Crossover trial | Vitamin C (0.5 g), blackcurrant (7.5 mg vitamin C and 150 mg anthocyanins), placebo × 2 per day for 3 weeks (low PP diet consumed on days of blood tests) | 3-week blocks of intensified training 5 km running time trial and maximum incremental treadmill test pre/post each block | = Performance (possible benefit of blackcurrant for faster runners) = Plasma and erythrocyte markers of oxidative stress (in contrast to vitamin C which exerted pro-oxidant effects: ↑SOD, CAT and PC) |
Cook et al. [75] | Recreationally active men (n = 14) Crossover trial | 300 mg blackcurrant per day (105 mg anthocyanins) for 7 days | 16.1 km cycling time trial after 30 min steady state cycling | ↑ Time trial performance (2.4%) ↑ Fat oxidation during SS cycling (indirect calorimetry 27%) ↑ Blood lactate concentration (~ 12%) |
Godwin et al. [78] | Recreationally active University players (n = 15) and trained youth (n = 9) male footballers. Crossover trial | 300 mg blackcurrant per day (105 mg anthocyanins) for 7 days | 6 × 35 m sprints interspersed with 10 s passive recovery | Trend for improved fatigue index (~ 12%, p = 0.06) |
Murphy et al. [79] | Trained male cyclists (n = 10) Crossover trial | 300 mg blackcurrant per day (105 mg anthocyanins) for 7 days | 2 × 4 km time trials interspersed with 10 min active recovery | ↑ Performance (0.8%) = Blood lactate concentration and heart rate |
Perkins et al. [76] | Recreationally active men (n = 13) Crossover trial | 300 mg blackcurrant per day (105 mg anthocyanins) for 7 days | High intensity intermittent treadmill running to exhaustion (stages of sprints 6 × 19 s and 15 s low intensity running) | ↑ Running distance (~ 10%) = HR, \({\dot{\text V}}{\text O}_{2}\max\), blood lactate, RPE for first 4 stages Trend for ↑ blood lactate concentration at exhaustion (p = 0.07) |
Willems et al. [77] | Recreationally active men (n = 13) Crossover trial | 300 mg blackcurrant per day (105 mg anthocyanins) for 7 days | Loughborough Intermittent Shuttle Test | = Time to exhaustion ↓ Slowing of the fastest maximal sprint across blocks |
Allgrove et al. [82] | Recreationally active men (n = 20) Crossover trial | 40 g dark chocolate (54 mg catechins and 44 mg flavanols) twice per day for 2 weeks (last dose 2 h pre-ex) (low PP diet consumed 48 h pre-ex) | Pre-load: 60% \({\dot{\text V}}{\text O}_{2}\max\) for 90 min with 30 s at 90% \({\dot{\text V}}{\text O}_{2}\max\) every 10 min Time to exhaustion at 90% \({\dot{\text V}}{\text O}_{2}\max\) | = Time to exhaustion ↑ Plasma free fatty acid concentration ↓ Plasma markers of oxidative stress (F2-isoprostanes, oxidised low density lipoproteins) = Plasma markers of inflammation |
Kang et al. [73] | Recreationally active RCT | 100 mg oligomerized lychee extract (n = 24), or vitamin C (400 mg) and E (160 IU) (n = 24), or placebo (n = 22) for 30 days (no fruit/vegetables for 3d pre-ex) | Time to exhaustion treadmill running at 80% HRmax | ↑ Time to exhaustion = \({\dot{\text V}}{\text O}_{2}\max\) |
Richards et al. [83] | Recreationally active (n = 19) Crossover trial | 135 mg epigallocatechin × 3 per day for 2 days and 2 h pre-ex | Incremental maximum cycle exercise test | ↑ \({\dot{\text V}}{\text O}_{2}\max\) = Maximum cardiac output |
Sadowska-Krepa et al. [74] | Recreationally active RCT | 73 mg PP from 390 mg red grape skin extract (n = 9) vs placebo (n = 5) × 3 per day for 6 weeks | 6 × 50 m swimming time trials | ↑ Performance (faster speed, = heart rate) = Plasma total antioxidant capacity and antioxidant enzyme activity (e.g. glutathione reductase, catalase, superoxide dismutase) ↓ Blood creatine kinase activity |
Trinity et al. [81] | Trained male cyclists (n = 12) Crossover trial | 500 ml pomegranate or placebo × 2 per day for 7 days (~ 1800 mg PP per day) | 10 min cycling time trial after 50 min pre-load time to exhaustion at \({\dot{\text V}}{\text O}_{2}\max\) power output All at 31.5 °C and 55% humidity | = Time trial performance = Time to exhaustion = Heart rate, stroke volume, cardiac output |
3.2 Evidence of Enhanced Performance
3.2.1 Acute Polyphenol Supplementation
3.2.2 Chronic Polyphenol Supplementation
3.3 Mechanisms
4 Fruit-derived Polyphenols and Recovery after Intensive Exercise
4.1 Rationale
4.2 Evidence of Enhanced Functional Recovery
References | Participant characteristics | Supplementation protocol | Muscle damage protocol | Effects of polyphenol supplementation |
---|---|---|---|---|
Beals et al. [110] | Recreationally active RCT | 30 g tart cherry powder (n = 15) versus placebo (n = 15) × 2 per day for 12 days (733 mg PP, 64 mg anthocyanins) | Maximal effort unilateral isokinetic concentric/eccentric knee extensor contractions of at 60o·s−1 until 50% drop in force Performed on d5 supplementation | = Isometric knee extensor muscle force = Muscle soreness = Plasma biomarkers of inflammation |
Bell et al. [120] | Trained cyclists RCT | 30 ml Montmorency cherry concentrate (600 mg PP, 254 mg anthocyanins) (n = 8) versus placebo (n = 8) × 2 per day for 7 days (low PP diet consumed throughout trial) | High-intensity stochastic cycling exercise (109 min) Performed on days 5, 6, 7 | ↓ Plasma biomarkers of inflammation (IL6 and CRP) ↓ Plasma marker of oxidative damage (lipid hydroperoxides) |
Bell et al. [108] | Trained cyclists RCT | 30 ml Montmorency cherry concentrate (600 mg PP, 254 mg anthocyanins) (n = 8) versus placebo (n = 8) × 2 per day for 7 days (low PP diet consumed throughout trial) | High intensity stochastic cycling exercise (109 min) Performed on days 5 | ↑ isometric knee extensor muscle force, cycling economy ↓ plasma markers of inflammation (IL6 and CRP) = plasma marker of damage (CK and lipid hydroperoxides) |
Bell et al. [107] | Semi-professional male soccer players RCT | 30 ml Montmorency cherry concentrate (600 mg PP, 254 mg anthocyanins) (n = 8) versus placebo (n = 8) × 2 per day for 8 days (low PP diet consumed throughout trial) | Loughborough Intermittent Shuttle Test Performed on d5 supplementation | ↑ Isometric knee extensor muscle force, countermovement jump height, and agility ↓ Muscle soreness ↓ Plasma markers of inflammation (IL6) = Plasma markers of damage (CK and lipid hydroperoxides) |
Bowtell et al. [106] | Trained high intensity intermittent sport athletes (n = 10) Crossover trial | 30 ml Montmorency cherry concentrate (600 mg PP, 254 mg anthocyanins) × 2 per day for 10 days | 10 sets of 10 unilateral knee extension repetitions @ 80% 1RM Performed on d8 supplementation | ↑ Isometric knee extensor muscle force = Muscle soreness and CK = Plasma biomarkers of inflammation (CRP) ↓ Plasma marker of oxidative damage (PC) |
Connolly et al. [104] | Recreationally active men (n = 14) Crossover trial | 12 oz bottles Montmorency cherry concentrate in apple juice (600 mg PP, incl 40 mg anthocyanins) × 2 per day for 8 days | 2 × 20 maximum unilateral eccentric elbow flexor contractions Performed on d4 supplementation | ↑ Isometric elbow flexor muscle force ↓ Muscle soreness = Muscle tenderness and relaxed elbow joint angle |
Howatson et al. [105] | Recreational marathon runners (n = 20) RCT | 8 oz bottles Montmorency cherry juice (600 mg PP, incl 40 mg anthocyanins) (n = 10) versus placebo (n = 10) × 2 per day for 8 days | Marathon Performed on d6 supplementation | ↑ Isometric knee extensor muscle force = Muscle soreness, CK and LDH ↓ Plasma biomarkers of inflammation (IL6 and CRP) Plasma markers of oxidative damage (↓TBARS, = PC) |
Kuehl et al. [112] | Recreational runners RCT | 10.5 oz Montmorency cherry juice (600 mg PP, incl 40 mg anthocyanins) (n = 28) versus placebo (n = 26) × 2 per day for 8 days | Hood to Coast relay race 26.3 ± 2.5 km distance Performed on d8 supplementation | ↓ Muscle soreness |
Levers et al. [109] | Resistance trained men RCT | 480 mg Montmorency cherry powder (n = 11) versus placebo (n = 12) × 1 per day for 10 days | 10 sets of 10 repetitions @ 70% 1RM barbell back squats Performed on d8 supplementation | = Isometric knee extensor muscle force ↑ Pressure pain tolerance = Plasma biomarkers of inflammation = Plasma marker of oxidative damage |
Machin et al. [116] | Recreationally active men RCT | 30 ml pomegranate concentrate (650 mg PP, 620 mg ellagitanins) × 1 (n = 15) or × 2 (n = 15) per day or placebo (n = 15) for 8 days | 3 × 20 maximum unilateral eccentric elbow flexor contractions 20 min downhill running Performed on d4 supplementation | ↑ Isometric elbow flexor and knee extensor strength = Muscle soreness = Blood muscle damage markers (Mb) |
McCormick et al. [111] | Trained waterpolo players (n = 9) Crossover trial | 30 ml Montmorency cherry concentrate (600 mg PP, 254 mg anthocyanins) × 3 per day for 7 days | Fatiguing simulated water polo team activity Performed on d6 supplementation | = Performance waterpolo specific tasks = Plasma biomarkers of inflammation and oxidative damage |
Trombold et al. [114] | Recreationally active men (n = 16) Crossover trial | 500 ml pomegranate juice (650 mg PP, 620 mg ellagitanins) × 2 per day for 9 days | 2 × 20 maximum eccentric elbow flexor contractions Performed on d5 supplementation | ↑ Isometric strength = Muscle soreness = Muscle damage (CK, Mb) = Plasma markers of inflammation (IL6, CRP) |
Trombold et al. [115] | Resistance trained men (n = 17) Crossover trial | 250 ml pomegranate juice (495 mg tannins, 96 mg anthocyanins, 30 mg ellagic acid derivatives) × 2 per day for 15 days | 3 × 20 maximum unilateral eccentric elbow flexor contractions 6 × 10 unilateral maximum knee extensor contractions Performed on d8 supplementation | ↑ Isometric elbow flexor strength ↓ Elbow flexor muscle soreness = Isometric knee extensor strength = Knee extensor muscle soreness |
Hutchison et al. [35] | Untrained RCT | 12 oz blackcurrant juice (369 mg anthocyanins) (n = 8) versus placebo (n = 8) × 2 for 8 days | 3 × 10 repeitions @ 115%1RM eccentric back squats Performed on d5 supplementation | = Muscle soreness ↓ Blood markers of muscle damage (CK) ↓ Blood marker inflammation (IL6) |
Ives et al. [136] | Recreationally active men RCT | Carbohydrate (n = 14), whey protein (31 g, n = 16), whey protein (31 g) and berry powder (100 mg, n = 17), consumed immediately, 6 and 22 h post-ex (low PP diet consumed day before and day of exercise) | 100 maximal eccentric knee extensor contractions | ↑ Knee extensor strength ↓ Muscle soreness No significant additive effects of berry extract except for lower soreness. |
McLeay et al. [117] | Recreationally active women (n = 10) Crossover trial | 200 g blueberry in test beverage (~ 420 mg PP, 242 mg anthocyanins) consumed × 3 on day of exercise and × 1 am d1 and d2 post-ex | 3 × 100 unilateral maximum knee extensor eccentric contractions Performed 10 h after first dose | ↑ Knee extensor strength = Muscle soreness = Blood markers of muscle damage (CK) = Blood markers of inflammation (IL6) = Blood markers of oxidative damage (PC, p = 0.06) |
Peschek et al. [118] | Endurance trained (n = 8) Crossover trial | Chocolate milk (1 g·kg−1 CHO, 0.3 g·kg−1 protein, 350 mg cocoa flavanols) versus chocolate milk with no cocoa flavanols; consumed 1 and 2 h post-ex | 30 min downhill running | = Knee extensor muscle strength and 5 km time trial = Muscle soreness = Blood markers of muscle damage (CK) |
Romain et al. [148] | Recreationally active (n = 13) Crossover trial | 1.5 g.d−1 extract from mangosteen, black elderberry and pomegranate (219 mg PP, 130 mg ellagic acid and derivatives, 85 × anthone derivatives) × 1 for 5 days (first dose on day of exercise) | 8 × 8RM half squats | ↓ Muscle soreness ↓ Blood markers of muscle damage (Mb) |