Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Mentor Self-Disclosure in Youth Mentoring Relationships: A Review of the Literature About Adults Disclosing to Non-Familial Adolescents in Intervention Settings

  • Narrative Review
  • Published:
Adolescent Research Review Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Youth mentoring is a popular intervention that pairs caring adults and vulnerable young people to promote positive outcomes and youth thriving. Evidence of the modest effects of mentoring has spurred interest in identifying how mentoring relationships can be enhanced. Like mentoring, psychotherapy is an intervention where adults form interpersonal relationships with non-familial adolescents. Theory and research from the psychotherapy domain indicates that therapist self-disclosure is communication tool that may be particularly beneficial for use with adolescents. The scant research regarding self-disclosure in youth mentoring contexts either precedes contemporary mentoring research, or is a peripheral part of research focused on other relationship factors. To bridge a gap between the two interventions, this review details the available literature about self-disclosure in youth mentoring relationships, then draws on research about therapist self-disclosure that may provide insight into the purpose and effect of mentor self-disclosure to adolescent mentees. A discussion of the critical differences between the roles of mentor and therapist, and some associated risks is also provided. This review highlights mentor self-disclosure as a powerful tool for developing high quality relationships, setting the foundation for future research and mentor training for safe and effective practice.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Ahrens, K.R., DuBois, D.L., Garrison, M., Spencer, R., Richardson, L.P., & Lozano, P. (2011). Qualitative exploration of relationships with important non-parental adults in the lives of youth in foster care. Children and Youth Services Review, 33(6), 1012–1023. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2011.01.006.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Altman, I., & Taylor, D.A. (1973). Social penetration theory: the development of interpersonal relationships. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bayer, A., Grossman, J.B., & DuBois, D.L. (2015). Using volunteer mentors to improve the academic outcomes of underserved students: the role of relationships. Journal of Community Psychology, 43(4), 408–429. doi:10.1002/jcop.21693.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cayanus, J.L., Martin, M.M., & Goodboy, A.K. (2009). The relation between teacher self-disclosure and student motives to communicate. Communication Research Reports, 26(2), 105–113. doi: 10.1080/08824090902861523.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chan, C.S., Rhodes, J.E., Howard, W., Lowe, J., Schwartz, S.R., Schwartz, S.E., & Herrera, C. (2013). Pathways of influence in school-based mentoring: The mediating role of parent and teacher relationships. Journal of School Psychology, 51(1), 129–142. doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2012.10.001.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crooks, C.V., Exner-Cortens, D., Burm, S., Lapointe, A., & Chiodo, D. (2017). Two years of relationship-focused mentoring for First Nations, Métis, and Inuit adolescents: Promoting positive mental health. The Journal of Primary Prevention, 38(1–2), 87–104. doi:10.1007/s10935-016-0457-0.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Deutsch, N.L., Reitz-Krueger, C.L., Henneberger, A.K., Futch Ehrlich, V.A., & Lawrence, E.C. (2017). It gave me ways to solve problems and ways to talk to people” outcomes from a combined group and one-on-one mentoring program for early adolescent girls. Journal of Adolescent Research, 32(3), 291–322. doi: 10.1177/0743558416630813.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deutsch, N.L., & Spencer, R. (2009). Capturing the magic: Assessing the quality of youth mentoring relationships. New Directions for Youth Development, 121, 47–70. doi:10.1002/yd.296.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dolgin, K.G. (1996). Parents’ disclosure of their own concerns to their adolescent children. Personal Relationships, 3(2), 159–169.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dolgin, K.G., & Kim, S. (1994). Adolescents’ disclosure to best and good friends: The effects of gender and topic intimacy. Social Development, 3(2), 146–157.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DuBois, D.L., Holloway, B.E., Valentine, J.C., & Cooper, H. (2002). Effectiveness of mentoring programs for youth: A meta-analytic review. American Journal of Community Psychology, 30(2), 157–197. doi: 10.1023/A:1014628810714.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • DuBois, D.L., & Karcher, M.J. (2014). Youth mentoring in contemporary perspective. In D.L. DuBois & M.J. Karcher (Eds.), Handbook of youth mentoring (2nd edn., pp. 3–13). Thousand Oaks: Sage.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • DuBois, D.L., Portillo, N., Rhodes, J.E., Silverthorn, N., & Valentine, J.C. (2011). How effective are mentoring programs for youth? A systematic assessment of the evidence. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 12(2), 57–91. doi:10.1177/1529100611414806.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • DuBois, D.L., & Silverthorn, N. (2005). Natural mentoring relationships and adolescent health: Evidence from a national study. American Journal of Public Health, 95(3), 518–524.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Duncan, B.L., Miller, S.D., Sparks, J.A., Claud, D.A., Reynolds, L.R., Brown, J., & Johnson, L.D. (2003). The session rating scale: Preliminary psychometric properties of a “working” alliance measure. Journal of Brief Therapy, 3(1), 3–12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eby, L.T., Rhodes, K.E., & Allen, T.D. (2007). Definition and evolution of mentoring. In T.D. Allen & L.T. Eby (Eds.), The Blackwell handbook of mentoring. Malden: Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Edwards, C.E., & Murdock, N.L. (1994). Characteristics of therapist self-disclosure in the counseling process. Journal of Counseling and Development, 72(4), 384–389.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Farruggia, S.P., Bullen, P., & Pierson, L. (2013). An in-depth examination of the mentor–mentee relationship quality. In M.F. Shaughnessy (Ed.), Mentoring: practices, potential challenges and benefits (pp. 11–22). Hauppauge: Nova Science.

    Google Scholar 

  • Finkenauer, C., Engels, R.C., Branje, S.J., & Meeus, W. (2004). Disclosure and relationship satisfaction in families. Journal of Marriage and Family, 66(1), 195–209.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frank, S.J., Pirsch, L.A., & Wright, V.C. (1990). Late adolescents’ perceptions of their relationships with their parents: Relationships among deidealization, autonomy, relatedness, and insecurity and implications for adolescent adjustment and ego identity status. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 19(6), 571–588.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frye, N.E., & Dornisch, M.M. (2010). When is trust not enough? The role of perceived privacy of communication tools in comfort with self-disclosure. Computers in Human Behavior, 26(5), 1120–1127.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gaines, R. (2003). Therapist self-disclosure with children, adolescents, and their parents. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 59(5), 569–580. doi:10.1002/jclp.10163.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, G. (1972). Companionship theory. London: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, G., & Dooley, D. (1976). A framework for help-intended communication. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research & Practice, 13(2), 106–117.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Greene, K., Derlega, V.J., & Mathews, A. (2006). Self-disclosure in personal relationships. In A. Vangelisti & D. Perlman (Eds.), Cambridge handbook of personal relationships (pp. 409–427). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Herrera, C. (2004). School-based mentoring: A closer look. Retrieved from P/PV Issuelab website: http://ppv.issuelab.org/resource/school_based_mentoring_a_closer_look. Accessed 30 June 2017.

  • Hill, C.E., & Knox, S. (2002). Self-disclosure. In J.C. Norcross (Ed.), Psychotherapy relationships that work: Therapist contributions and responsiveness to patients (pp. 225–265). Cary: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jourard, S. M. (1964). The transparent self: Self-disclosure and well-being. New York: Van Nostrand.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jourard, S.M. (1971). Self-disclosure: An experimental analysis of the transparent self. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Karcher, M.J., & Hansen, K. (2014). Mentoring activities and interactions. In D.L. DuBois & M.J. Karcher (Eds.), Handbook of youth mentoring (2nd edn., pp. 63–82). Thousand Oaks: Sage.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Karcher, M.J., Kuperminc, G.P., Portwood, S.G., Sipe, C.L., & Taylor, A.S. (2006). Mentoring programs: A framework to inform program development, research, and evaluation. Journal of Community Psychology, 34(6), 709–725. doi:10.1002/jcop.20125.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Karver, M.S., Handelsman, J.B., Fields, S., & Bickman, L. (2006). Meta-analysis of therapeutic relationship variables in youth and family therapy: The evidence for different relationship variables in the child and adolescent treatment outcome literature. Clinical Psychology Review, 26(1), 50–65. doi: 10.1016/j.cpr.2005.09.001.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Keller, T.E. (2005). A systemic model of the youth mentoring intervention. The Journal of Primary Prevention, 26(2), 169–187. doi:10.1007/s10935-005-1850-2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Keller, T.E. (2007). Youth mentoring: Theoretical and methodological issues. In T.D. Allen & L.T. Eby (Eds.), The Blackwell handbook of mentoring. Malden: Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Knapp, M.L., & Daly, J.A. (2011). Background and current trends in the study of interpersonal communication. In M.L. Knapp & J.A. Daly (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of interpersonal communication (4th edn., pp. 3–22). Thousand Oaks: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kupersmidt, J.B., & Rhodes, J.E. (2014). Mentor training. In D.L. DuBois & M.J. Karcher (Eds.), Handbook of youth mentoring (2nd edn., pp. 439–456). Thousand Oaks: Sage.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Liang, B., Spencer, R., Brogan, D., & Corral, M. (2008). Mentoring relationships from early adolescence through emerging adulthood: A qualitative analysis. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 72(2), 168–182. doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2007.11.005.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Matsushima, R., & Shiomi, K. (2002). Self-disclosure and friendship in junior high school students. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 30(5), 515–525.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moreno-Candil, D., & Garza, M. (2017). A pilot study of the impact of the Peraj mentoring program on school dropout risk of Mexican children. Journal of Community Psychology, 45(3), 315–332. doi: 10.1002/jcop.21849.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Myers, D., & Hayes, J.A. (2006). Effects of therapist general self-disclosure and countertransference disclosure on ratings of the therapist and session. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 43(2), 173–185. doi: 10.1037/0033-3204.43.2.173.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Papouchis, N. (1990). Criteria for therapist self-disclosure. In G. Stricker & M. Fisher (Eds.), Self-disclosure in the therapeutic relationship (pp. 157–174). New York: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-1-4899-3582-3.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Peterson, Z.D. (2002). More than a mirror: The ethics of therapist self-disclosure. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 39(1), 21–31. doi: 10.1037/0033-3204.39.1.21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pryce, J.M., & Keller, T.E. (2011). Interpersonal tone within school-based youth mentoring relationships. Youth & Society, 45(1), 98–116. doi:10.1177/0044118X11409068.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Psychopathology Committee of the Group for the Advancement of Psychiatry. (2001). Re-examination of therapist self-disclosure. Psychiatric Services, 52(11), 1489–1493.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Raposa, E.B., Dietz, N., & Rhodes, J.E. (2017). Trends in volunteer mentoring in the United States: Analysis of a decade of census survey data. American Journal of Community Psychology, 59(1–2), 3–14. doi: 10.1002/ajcp.12117.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rhodes, J., Liang, B., & Spencer, R. (2009). First do no harm: Ethical principles for youth mentoring relationships. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 40(5), 452–458. doi:10.1037/a0015073.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rhodes, J.E. (2002). Stand by me: The risks and rewards of mentoring today’s youth. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rhodes, J.E., & DuBois, D.L. (2008). Mentoring relationships and programs for youth. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17(4), 254–258. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8721.2008.00585.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rhodes, J.E., Spencer, R., Keller, T.E., Liang, B., & Noam, G. (2006). A model for the influence of mentoring relationships on youth development. Journal of Community Psychology, 34(6), 691–707. doi:10.1002/jcop.20124.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rubin, Z., & Shenker, S. (1978). Friendship, proximity, and self-disclosure. Journal of Personality, 46(1), 1–22.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, S.E.O., Rhodes, J.E., Chan, C.S., & Herrera, C. (2011). The impact of school-based mentoring on youths with different relational profiles. Developmental Psychology, 47(2), 450–462. doi:10.1037/a0021379.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Simon, J.C. (1990). Criteria for therapist self-disclosure. In G. Stricker & M. Fisher (Eds.), Self-disclosure in the therapeutic relationship (pp. 207–225). New York: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-1-4899-3582-3.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Sollie, D.L., & Fischer, J.L. (1985). Sex-role orientation, intimacy of topic, and target person differences in self-disclosure among women. Sex Roles, 12(9), 917–929.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spencer, R. (2004). Studying relationships in psychotherapy: An untapped resource for youth mentoring. New Directions for Student Leadership, 2004(103), 31–43.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spencer, R. (2012). A working model of mentors’ contributions to youth mentoring relationship quality: Insights from research on psychotherapy. Learning Landscapes, 5(2), 295–312.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spencer, R., & Basualdo-Delmonico, A. (2014). Family involvement in the youth mentoring process: A focus group study with program staff. Children and Youth Services Review, 41, 75–82. doi: 10.1016/j.childyouth.2014.03.013.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spencer, R., & Liang, B. (2009). “She gives me a break from the world”: Formal youth mentoring relationships between adolescent girls and adult women. The Journal of Primary Prevention, 30(2), 109–130. doi: 10.1007/s10935-009-0172-1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tamir, D.I., & Mitchell, J.P. (2012). Disclosing information about the self is intrinsically rewarding. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109(21), 8038–8043.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tang, J., & Wang, C. (2012). Self-disclosure among bloggers: Re-examination of social penetration theory. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 15(5), 245–250. doi: 10.1089/cyber.2011.0403.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, A.S., & Porcellini, L. (2014). Family involvement. In D.L. DuBois & M.J. Karcher (Eds.), Handbook of youth mentoring (2nd edn., pp. 457–468). Thousand Oaks: Sage.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Topping, K. (1998). Effective tutoring in America Reads: A reply to Wasik. The Reading Teacher, 52(1), 42–50.

    Google Scholar 

  • Varga, S.M., & Deutsch, N.L. (2016). Revealing both sides of the story: A comparative analysis of mentors and protégés relational perspectives. The Journal of Primary Prevention, 37(5), 449–465. doi: 10.1007/s10935-016-0443-6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weber, K., Johnson, A., & Corrigan, M. (2004). Communicating emotional support and its relationship to feelings of being understood, trust, and self-disclosure. Communication Research Reports, 21(3), 316–323.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weiler, L.M., Haddock, S.A., Zimmerman, T.S., Henry, K.L., Krafchick, J.L., & Youngblade, L.M. (2015). Time-limited, structured youth mentoring and adolescent problem behaviors. Applied Developmental Science, 19(4), 196–205. doi: 10.1080/10888691.2015.1014484.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Weiner, M. F. (1978). Therapist disclosure: The use of self in psychotherapy. Boston: Butterworths.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wells, T.L. (1994). Therapist self-disclosure: Its effects on clients and the treatment relationship. Smith College Studies in Social Work, 65(1), 23–41.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wheeless, L.R., & Grotz, J. (1976). Conceptualization and measurement of reported self-disclosure. Human Communication Research, 2(4), 338–346.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The author thanks Dr Kelsey Deane and Dr Pat Bullen for their feedback during the early stages of developing this manuscript.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Faculty of Education and Social Work, University of Auckland, Private Bag 92601, Symonds Street, Auckland, 1150, New Zealand

    Hilary Dutton

Authors
  1. Hilary Dutton
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Hilary Dutton.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The author reports no conflict of interest.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Dutton, H. Mentor Self-Disclosure in Youth Mentoring Relationships: A Review of the Literature About Adults Disclosing to Non-Familial Adolescents in Intervention Settings. Adolescent Res Rev 3, 57–66 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40894-017-0065-0

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40894-017-0065-0

Keywords

Search

Navigation