Commentary

Retraction of an interpretation

The quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) is fundamental to molecular biology. It is not just a laboratory technique, qPCR is a bridge between research and clinical practice. Its theoretical foundations guide the design of experiments, while its practical implications extend to diagnostics, treatment, and research advancements in the life sciences, human and veterinary medicine, agriculture, and forensics. However, the accuracy, reliability and reproducibility of qPCR data face challenges arising from various factors associated with experimental design, execution, data analysis and inadequate reporting details. Addressing these concerns, the Minimum Information for the Publication of Quantitative Real-Time PCR Experiments (MIQE) guidelines have emerged as a cohesive framework offering a standardised set of recommendations that describe the essential information required for assessing qPCR experiments. By emphasising the importance of methodological rigour, the MIQE guidelines have made a major contribution to improving the trustworthiness, consistency, and transparency of many published qPCR results. However, major challenges related to awareness, resources, and publication pressures continue to affect their consistent application.

To discuss the value and limitations of interpreting small case series for the purpose of understanding the pathophysiology of conditions affecting the visual system and how they may influence patient care decision making.

Selective review of English-language ophthalmic articles published in peer-reviewed journals since 1950.

Author-initiated PubMed Central query of small case series in glaucoma, pediatric neuro-ophthalmology, and diabetic retinopathy.

A review of well-known ophthalmic case studies by Gass, Irvine, Brockhurst, and others shows that small samples can provide suggestions to the skilled clinician for adding steps to the examination process when uncovering rare or previously unknown associated complications, as is the case for this perspective's initiating studies by Groth and Brodsky. However, as shown by the now-retracted small case series in Lancet connecting measles-mumps-rubella vaccinations with autism, small case series do not replace the value of clinical trials, with rare exception, when considering impacts to widespread, common clinical practice.

Small case series may contribute to an improved understanding of pathophysiology of rare ophthalmic conditions, but alone are insufficient to provide evidence for changing clinical practice of common eye diseases.

Children are exposed to a wide variety of naturally occurring and manmade substances beginning during the prenatal period. For some, there are clear physical and behavioral effects, particularly when the level of exposure is high. Behavioral teratology recently has become focused on low exposure levels; this is where there is most disagreement about whether children are affected by the exposure and whether effects are functionally important. Some exposures occur through everyday life activities (eating, breathing, etc.), where PCBs, mercury, and lead may be involved. Other exposures occur as a result of behavioral choices, such as when pregnant women use alcohol, tobacco, and illicit substances.

The human immune response is regulated by a wide array of genes located across the genome. Lymphocytes use germline rearrangement of T and B cell receptor genes to create the fine specificity associated with adaptive immune response. While this fine specificity is the hallmark of adaptive immunity, research has shown that the response requires a coordinated interaction between lymphocytes and many other cell types. As such, genes that can affect the immune response continue to be identified and our understanding of the role of individual genes and gene networks is improving. Understanding immune responses has long been viewed as one of the keys to vaccine design. As genomic approaches mature, so too will our ability to characterize the diversity of vaccine responses and design better vaccines. This chapter outlines the relevant concepts and includes a discussion of hurdles we still face in implementing genomic and/or personalized approaches to vaccine design and administration.