Elsevier

Energy

Volume 27, Issue 1, January 2002, Pages 47-63
Energy

Improved cookstoves in rural India: how improved are they?: A critique of the perceived benefits from the National Programme on Improved Chulhas (NPIC)

https://doi.org/10.1016/S0360-5442(01)00056-1Get rights and content

Abstract

The National Programme on Improved Cookstoves (NPIC) was started by the Ministry of Non-conventional Energy Sources (MNES), Government of India, in 1985 to achieve the twin objectives of fuelwood conservation and smoke reduction in kitchens. NPIC has overseen the installation of 28 million improved cookstoves, saving nearly 20 million tons of firewood per year. These achievements, though seemingly impressive, are not realistic as they are based on certain assumptions, particularly regarding the life expectancy of stoves. This paper examines the various assumptions made in such calculations and tries to arrive at some realistic numbers regarding fuelwood savings, which can be used to evolve a policy for refining the NPIC further.

Introduction

Improved cookstoves (chulhas), aimed at enhancing the energy efficiency of biomass burning and eliminating the smoke from the kitchen environment, have been in vogue in India since the late 1940s. However, concerted efforts to promote this technology in rural areas began only in the early 1980s in the wake of the rural energy crisis [1]. Improved Chulha (IC), along with biogas, was one of the earliest technology dissemination programmes launched by the Department of Non-conventional Energy Sources (DNES), created in 1982 (DNES became a separate ministry, MNES, in 1992). Starting as a demonstration programme in 1983–1984, chulhas then became part of a full-fledged National Programme on Improved Chulhas (NPIC) in 1985–1986 [2]. The stated objectives of this programme are: (i) fuelwood conservation; (ii) removal/reduction of smoke from kitchens; (iii) reduction of deforestation and environmental degradation; (iv) reduction in the drudgery of tasks performed by women and girl-children and their consequent exposure to health hazards; and (v) employment generation in rural areas.

NPIC follows a multi-model, multi-agency approach. Annual targets, in terms of the number of chulhas to be installed, are determined at the national level and are then disaggregated at the state level to be implemented by nodal departments and agencies of the respective state governments through their district and block-level cells. In addition, some national level governmental and non-governmental organizations are given separate targets. At the village and household level, the approach is to implement the programme through grassroots Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and self-employed workers (SEW). Typically, around two million ICs are targeted for dissemination each year. For the year 1997–1998, the target was three million while the actual number achieved was 2.6 million [2].

There are basically two types of ICs: fixed mud chulhas (with chimney) and portable metal chulhas (without chimney). Within these two categories, there are a number of different models and designs available in different parts of the country. The cost of chulhas varies from Indian Rs 100–300. Almost 50–75% — depending on the region and social status of its households — is met by a direct cash subsidy given under the NPIC [3]. A large infrastructure is also in place by way of Technical Backup Units (TBUs), which are expected to provide R&D and training support in various states.

Apart from the environmental and health advantages offered by ICs, one of the major benefits perceived is the saving of biomass fuel through higher efficiency. The achievements of NPIC in terms of fuelwood and monetary savings are regularly reported in successive annual reports of MNES. These reported savings are estimated on the basis of certain assumptions regarding the performance of the improved stove in the field, the validity of which appears questionable. The most important of the assumptions are: (i) life expectancy of the stoves is indefinite; (ii) an improved chulha saves fuelwood at an average rate of 700 kg/year irrespective of its age, type and region [4]; and (iii) the monetary value of biomass saved is Rs 400 per tonne. This paper attempts to critically examine these assumptions and to estimate the realistic benefits of the NPIC. In the process, the paper also suggests a simple method for estimating the number of stoves that are likely to be in existence in the field at any given time.

Section snippets

Perceived gains of NPIC

The number of improved stoves installed every year, along with the cumulative figures and the estimated fuelwood and monetary savings, compiled from the various annual reports of MNES, are presented in Table 1. It can be seen that the cumulative number of stoves, which is the basis for subsequent calculation of savings, takes into account all the stoves installed since 1983–1984. This implies that the life of the stove is taken to be indefinite. The fuelwood savings figure is obtained by simply

Life of an improved stove

It is common knowledge that traditional mud stoves built in rural areas do not last for more than one year and they have to be rebuilt every year. In fact chulhas are customarily built or repaired and decorated during important festivals such as Ugadi in south India (New Year day according to the Hindu calendar) or when there are important family functions such as a marriage. The same can be expected for improved mud stoves also, because, except for the addition of chimney and changes in

Estimating the number of working stoves — a population balance approach

The following procedure was adopted in estimating the stove population:

  • (i) The number of ICs installed year-wise is first tabulated.

  • (ii) It was assumed that the ICs are installed at a uniform rate, that is the number of stoves installed in the year are equally divided for each month.

  • (iii) The monthly cumulative number of ICs is then obtained by adding. However, in getting the cumulative number, the stoves installed 18 months ago are subtracted from the total as these many stoves would have

Fuelwood and monetary savings

The fuel savings will depend on: (i) the number of stoves existing at the given time, (ii) the fraction of the stoves using firewood and (iii) fuel saving capability of the IC. In the earlier section, the number of working stoves has been estimated. This section will discuss the other two aspects.

It is well known that rural households use a variety of biofuels for cooking, which include fuelwood, crop residues and dung cakes. In fact, states such as Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan use

Effect of distribution of stoves installed every month

In the earlier section, it was assumed that ICs are installed at a uniform rate, which does not accurately reflect the field situation. It is known that majority of stoves get installed in last quarter of the year. To study the effect of such a skewed installation rate, the spreadsheet for population balance is reworked with all the ICs installed in the last three months of a particular year. The realistic fuelwood savings and monetary benefits would also change correspondingly. The results of

Other benefits of improved chulhas

Apart from fuelwood and monetary savings, the other perceived benefits of ICs are: (i) reduction of drudgery and (ii) reduction of smoke-related health hazards. The drudgery is primarily due to the collection of firewood and preparation of dung cakes, and is directly proportional to the total amount of fuel consumed in the household. The lesser the fuel consumed, the lesser the drudgery. However, the foregoing analysis showed that fuel consumption reduces only marginally due to use of ICs and

Conclusions

The primary aim of the analysis carried out in this paper is to arrive at a realistic picture as far as the physical benefits of NPIC are concerned. In this regard, it is shown that the real benefits are likely to be far lower than the claims made in the annual reports of MNES. However, this is not to conclude that NPIC had been a failure. The health advantages of improved chulhas along with their low device costs are well established, and even for a short period, the rural households will have

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1

Currently with United Nations Development Programme, 55 Lodhi Estate, New Delhi 110 003, India. Tel.: +91-11-462-8877; fax: +91-11-462-7612.

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