Chapter One - Peste des Petits Ruminants Virus

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Abstract

Peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV) causes a severe contagious disease of sheep and goats and has spread extensively through the developing world. Because of its disproportionately large impact on the livelihoods of low-income livestock keepers, and the availability of effective vaccines and good diagnostics, the virus is being targeted for global control and eventual eradication. In this review we examine the origin of the virus and its current distribution, and the factors that have led international organizations to conclude that it is eradicable. We also review recent progress in the molecular and cellular biology of the virus and consider areas where further research is required to support the efforts being made by national, regional, and international bodies to tackle this growing threat.

Section snippets

Emergence of PPRV

Currently, PPR is the fastest expanding and potentially the most economically important disease of sheep and goats in many regions of the developing world where these domestic animals play an integral and important role in sustainable agriculture and development. PPR has spread so alarmingly during the last two decades that it has become a matter of concern for the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE), which have now

Host Range

PPR affects sheep and goats, although goats are often more severely affected than sheep (Lefevre and Diallo, 1990). However, variable seroprevalence has been observed in sheep and goats after an outbreak (Abraham et al., 2005, Ayari-Fakhfakh et al., 2011, Ozkul et al., 2002, Swai et al., 2009). Many factors may explain these differences: livestock management practices, host density, strain virulence (Couacy-Hymann et al., 2007a), as well as host species and breed (Diop et al., 2005). For

Current Distribution

In recent years, field data and laboratory findings have confirmed the dramatic spread of PPR toward the south of Africa, affecting Gabon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Somalia, Kenya, and Tanzania (Swai et al., 2009). In northern Zambia, serological evidence of PPRV infection was reported to the OIE by the Veterinary Services in Jul. 2015. Moreover, in Oct. 2012, PPR was reported for the first time in Angola (OIE notification). The risk of PPR introduction is now high for neighboring countries

Virus Transmission and Spread

Infected animals (mostly domestic ruminants) are the only source of PPRV. At an early stage of infection, virus excretion is massive in the exhaled air. By analogy with RPV, this probably allows noncontact transmission over at least a few meters (Idnani, 1944). Nasal and ocular discharges, saliva, and feces also contain large amounts of viral antigen (Abubakar et al., 2012). In goats, PPRV-RNA or antigen is excreted in the feces during at least 2 months after a natural infection (Abubakar et

Viral Protein Function

The PPRV genome is 15,948 nucleotides in length (Bailey et al., 2005), although a variant virus with an additional 6 nucleotides has been detected in the recent Chinese epizootic (Bao et al., 2014, Su et al., 2015). The genome contains six transcription units encoding, in sequential order, the nucleocapsid (N) protein, the phospho (P) protein, the matrix (M) protein, the fusion (F) protein, the hemagglutinin (H) protein, and the large (L) protein, which, together with the P protein, forms the

Live-Attenuated PPR Vaccines

Since the transmission of PPRV from virus-excreting infected to naïve animals is mainly by close contact, the most important sanitary preventive measure consists of restricting the importation of susceptible animals from infected to disease-free areas. Outbreaks can be controlled by stamping out followed by disinfection of premises and compensation of affected farmers. However, since most of the PPR-endemic regions are in developing countries, such drastic measures are difficult to implement.

Diagnostics for PPRV

The launch of the progressive control and eradication program for PPR will result in increased international demand for validated diagnostic tools and specific reagents for the rapid diagnosis of PPRV. Laboratory confirmation is necessary since PPR can be easily confused with other diseases producing similar clinical signs. Diagnosis of PPR is achieved using various techniques, including virus isolation, antigen detection, and nucleic acid amplification, and indirectly by detection of specific

Toward the Global Control and Eradication of PPR

To date, only two viral diseases have been eradicated worldwide, rinderpest and smallpox. As summarized by Thomson et al. (2015), the factors that have enabled these successes include: (i) direct transmission of the pathogen between the sensitive hosts; (ii) a severe disease leading to high detection rates; (iii) a single sensitive host species (humans in the case of smallpox) or a single species responsible for the maintenance of infection (cattle in the case of rinderpest), even if the virus

Areas for Future Research

Since safe, effective vaccines for use in PPRV control, as well as good diagnostic tools, are available, and the decision has been taken to mount a global PPR eradication program (FAO and OIE, 2015, OIE and FAO, 2015), it is important to identify the areas where research is still critically required to support this program.

In addition to the need to improve our knowledge of PPRV epidemiology at the field level, and get more accurate estimates of R0 (see Section 4), it would be extremely useful

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