Associations between sensitivity to punishment, sensitivity to reward, and gambling

Highlights

• We tested associations between SR, SP, and problematic gambling.

• SP moderated the relationship between SR and likelihood of no gambling problems.

• At low levels of SR, high SP was a protective factor against gambling problem.

• At high levels of SR, high SP was a risk factor for gambling problems.

Abstract

The majority of individuals gamble during their lifetime; however only a subset of these individuals develops problematic gambling. Gray's Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory may be relevant to understanding gambling problems. Differences in sensitivity to punishments and rewards can influence an individual's behavior and may be pertinent to the development of gambling problems. This study examined the functional associations between sensitivity to punishment (SP), sensitivity to reward (SR), and gambling problems in a sample of 2254 college students. Zero-inflated negative binomial regression was used to predict gambling problems as well as the absence of gambling problems. Gambling problems were hypothesized to be positively associated with SR and inversely associated with SP. In addition, SP was hypothesized to moderate the association between SR and gambling problems, attenuating the strength of the association. As hypothesized, SR was positively associated with gambling problems. However, SP did not moderate the relationship between SR and gambling problems. SP did, however, moderate the relationship between SR and the likelihood of never experiencing gambling problems. The results demonstrate that individual differences in SP and SR are functionally associated with gambling problems.

Introduction

Gambling is an activity that most individuals will participate in over the course of their life, however, only a few of these individuals develop pathological gambling (Griffiths, 2006). Pathological gambling, or gambling disorder, is a psychiatric condition characterized by persistent maladaptive gambling behavior (American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2013). Excessive gambling is associated with a wider range of negative consequences such as discord in interpersonal relationships, legal problems, financial loss, poor physical health, and other mental disorders (American Psychiatric Association, 2013, Clark, 2010, Morasco et al., 2006). In the United States, the prevalence of lifetime gambling problems and pathological gambling is approximately 2–5% (Griffiths, 2006, Pallesen et al., 2005, Potenza, 2008). In addition, according to the National Comorbidity Survey, 96.3% of individuals with history of pathological gambling have one or more diagnoses of other mental illnesses, such as substance use disorders, anxiety disorders, and major depressive disorders (Kessler et al., 2008). As gambling is becoming more accessible through the Internet (Griffiths, 2006), it is expected that more people will develop problems with gambling. Due to the severity of consequences, popularity of gambling, and increasing avenues of gambling, understanding risk and resiliency mechanisms underlying problem gambling is an important area of focus.

Gray's Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST; Gray, 1991) may be relevant to understanding the development of gambling problems (Balodis et al., 2013, Jacobsen et al., 2007). The RST ascertains that differences in neurobiological levels on sensitivity to punishments and rewards can influence an individual's affect and behavior. Moreover, the RST discusses two systems: behavioral activation system (BAS) and behavioral inhibition system (BIS; Gray, 1991). BAS is hypothesized to be sensitive to reward (SR), and thus leads individuals to attain goals (Gray, 1991). More recent developments have conceptualized BIS as mediating between BAS and Fight–Flight–Freezing system (FFFS) that controls avoidance and generating risk assessment (Gray & McNaughton, 2003). Since winning in gambling is a reward, individuals with high BAS (SR) are likely to engage in betting more. A limited amount of previous literature has examined relationships between BAS and gambling decision-making (Brunborg et al., 2011, Demaree et al., 2008, Kim and Lee, 2011). Brunborg and colleagues (2011) and Demaree et al. (2008) found a positive associated between BAS and the size of average bet on a laboratory slot machine task. Similarly, Kim and Lee (2011) found that individuals with a high BAS bet larger amounts and exhibit greater confidence even in situations with high likelihood of losing. The aforementioned findings demonstrate a significant association between BAS and gambling, further supporting the idea that high SR may act as a risk factor for problematic gambling.

There is a limited amount of literature investigating BIS and gambling behavior. BIS is hypothesized to be sensitive to punishment (SP) or nonreward, resulting in anxiety or fear, and thus stops individuals' actions or resolves approach–avoidance situations (Corr, 2001, Gray, 1991), and may act as a protective factor for problematic gambling. As losing in gambling is often punishing or nonrewarding, individuals with high sensitivity to punishment are expected to abstain from betting. In fact, Demaree et al. (2008) found that SP (BIS) is associated with less risk-taking while SR (BAS) is associated with greater risk-taking. Moreover, in that study, the influence of high SP (BIS) on risk-taking was greater than high SR (BAS). Similarly, Kim and Lee (2011) found that BAS, or SR, was positively associated with greater risky gambling decisions after a winning experience while BIS, or SP, was negatively associated with risky gambling decisions after the same experience. Alternatively, individuals who might be high in the anxiety associated with sensitivity to punishment engage in a variety of risk taking behaviors, including gambling, in an effort to alleviate negative affect and escape reality. If so, this might suggest a positive association between sensitivity to punishment and gambling (Hudson et al., 2013, Hundt et al., 2013). These opposing mechanisms might explain the null findings in recent literature on associations between BIS and gambling (Brunborg et al., 2011).

In addition, the two systems of the RST are orthogonal; thus, we hypothesized that SR and SP influence each other's effect on gambling problems. Such interaction effects of SR and SP were found in addiction research. For example, Simons and Arens (2007) found that sensitivity to punishment moderated the relationship between SR and marijuana use among college students. Similarly, Genovese and Wallace (2007) found the highest rates of substance use among adolescents with high SR and low SP. Given the established addictive nature of gambling, substance use studies such as those previously mentioned may provide important theoretical framework for the relationships between SR, SP, and gambling.

Although gambling is a behavior that the majority of people engage in during the course of their lifetime, many will not experience gambling problems. Additionally, one can only experience gambling problems if they are currently gambling. Thus, a large number of zero-values are expected within a mixed distribution of reported gambling problems. Some individuals who gamble may report no gambling-related problems while others may report a broad range of problems. It is expected, however, that individuals who do not gamble do not experience gambling problems. Thus, it is of interest to identify variables that predict non-gamblers as well as predictors of gambling problems. The current study examines associations between sensitivity to punishment, sensitivity to reward, and gambling problems among college students. It is hypothesized that sensitivity to reward will be positively associated with gambling problems, sensitivity to punishment will be negatively associated with gambling problems, and sensitivity to punishment will weaken the relationship between sensitivity to reward and the likelihood of having gambling problems.