Effect of local and long-range transport emissions on the elemental composition of PM10–2.5 and PM2.5 in Beirut

doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2007.04.032

Atmospheric Environment

Volume 41, Issue 31, October 2007, Pages 6497-6509

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2007.04.032 Get rights and content

Abstract

The elemental composition of PM_10−2.5 and PM_2.5 were studied in winter, summer, stormy and non-stormy dates during a period extending from February 2004 till January 2005, in a populated area of Beirut. Results of PIXE analysis and enrichment factor (E.F.) calculation, using Si as a reference of crustal material, showed that crustal elements (E.F.<10) like Si, Ca, K, Ti, Mn and Fe were more abundant in PM_10−2.5 while enriched elements (E.F.>10) like S, Cu, Zn and Pb predominated in PM_2.5. In PM_10−2.5, concentrations of crustal elements increased during stormy episodes, all time high Ca concentrations were due to the abundance of calcite and limestone rocks in Lebanon, and increased Cl levels correlated with marine air masses. In PM_2.5, sulfur concentrations were more prominent in the summer due to the enhancement of photochemical reactions. Sources of sulfur were attributed to local, sea-water and long-range transport from Eastern Europe, with the latter being the most predominate. Anthropogenic elements like Cu and Zn were generated from worn brakes and tires in high traffic density area and spikes of Pb were directly linked to a southerly wind originated from Egypt and/or Israel as determined by the air trajectory HYSPLIT model. In brief, elemental variations depended on the regional variability of the transport pattern and the different removal rates of aerosols.

Introduction

The Mediterranean basin is considered one of the most controversial regions for aerosol transportation due to its location at the intersection of air masses circulating among the three continents (Lelieveld et al., 2002). It is situated just North of the Saharan Desert of Africa, and South of the heavily populated and highly industrialized European continent. Other studies conducted in the North-Western (Spain, France, Italy) (Bergametti et al., 1989; Chester et al., 1999; Dulac et al., 1987; Migon et al., 1991; Querol et al., 2001; Sandroni and Migon, 1997) and eastern (Greece, Turkey, Israel) Mediterranean regions (Chabas and Lefevre, 2000; Erduran and Tuncel, 2001; Erel et al., 2006; Ganor et al., 1991; Graham et al., 2004; Gullu et al., 2000; Maenhaut et al., 1999; Mamane et al., 1980; Manalis et al., 2005; Manoli et al., 2002; Mihalopoulos et al., 1997; Thomaidis et al., 2003; Vousta et al., 2002; Yatin et al., 2000) emphasized the diversity of the atmosphere over the Mediterranean basin. In Lebanon, seasonal dust storms coming from the Arabian (South-East) and Saharan Deserts (South-West) in the Fall and Spring mild seasons, constitute the major source of mineral elements (Kubilay et al., 2000). Long-range transport of pollutants coming from central Europe enrich the air with sulfur dioxide (SO₂) (Ganor et al., 2000; Luria et al., 1996; Sciare et al., 2003; Tsitouridou et al., 2003; Zerefos et al., 2000), whereas marine aerosols contribute to sea-salt aerosols. Moreover, local emission cause an increase in the levels of nitrate and sulfate aerosols derived from oxides of nitrogen and SO₂, respectively (Danalatos and Glavas, 1999; Erduran and Tuncel, 2001; Kassomenos et al., 1999). Sulfur (S) concentration increases in the hot and humid summer (June, July and August) due to the enhancement of photochemical oxidation of SO₂, and drops in the rainy winter (December, January, and February) (Kouyoumdjian and Saliba, 2006). The purpose of this study was to determine the elemental content of PM_10–2.5 and PM_2.5 in Beirut during selected days in winter, summer, stormy and non-stormy episodes, using the particulate-induced X-ray emission (PIXE) technique. Also, a comparison between the elemental composition of the two particle sizes and the source apportionment through elemental–meteorological correlations are established.

Section snippets

Sampling

The sampling was conducted in one of the busiest areas of Beirut; Bourj Hammoud (33°53′N, 35°32′E) (Fig. 1) located in the North-Eastern suburb of Beirut at about 1 km away from the Mediterranean coast at an elevation of less than 10 m above sea level. This site is characterized by a high density of residential and commercial premises, and a very high volume of vehicular traffic. It also experiences a high volume of sea-spray, exhausts from Beirut harbor operations and some waste-mass burning

Results and discussion

The mass concentrations of PM_10–2.5 and PM_2.5 and their corresponding elemental composition (Si, S, Cl, K, Ca, Ti, Mn, Fe, Cu, Zn, and Pb) are presented in Table 2. Other elements such as V, Cr, Co, Ni, Cd, As, Se and Br were found to be below the limit of detection. Ca, Si and Fe prevailed in the PM_10–2.5 samples forming an average of 17% of the total mass average. In PM_2.5, this percentage decreased to 3%, while S; the most abundant element, constituted almost 4.6% of the average mass

Conclusions

Elemental analysis of PM_10–2.5 and PM_2.5 particles using PIXE analysis showed the presence of Si, S, Cl, K, Ca, Ti, Mn, Fe, Cu, Zn, and Pb. Based on the E.F. calculation, the crustal elements were defined as Si, K, Ti, Mn, Ca and Fe while the rest were classified as non-crustal. Their distribution between PM_10–2.5 and PM_2.5 and their source apportionment were as follows:

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Elevated concentrations of crustal elements, mostly present in PM_10–2.5, were associated with desert storms coming from the

Acknowledgements

This study was supported by the University Research Board (URB) at the American University of Beirut. The authors would like to thank the California Air resources Board, specifically Dr. Bart Croes, for the donation of the virtual impactor. A special thank is also extended to the municipality of Bourj Hammoud, especially (Mrs. Arpiné Mangasarian), for their great cooperation and help, and the NOAA Laboratory for making HYSPLIT model available to researchers all over the world.

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Effect of local and long-range transport emissions on the elemental composition of PM10–2.5 and PM2.5 in Beirut

Abstract

Introduction

Section snippets

Sampling

Results and discussion

Conclusions

Acknowledgements

Atmospheric Environment

Marine Chemistry

Atmospheric Environment

Atmospheric Environment

Atmospheric Environment

Atmospheric Environment

Earth-Science Reviews

Atmospheric Environment

Spectrochimica Acta B

Atmospheric Environment

Atmospheric Environment

Atmospheric Environment

Nuclear Instruments & Methods B

Chemosphere

Atmospheric Environment

Nuclear Instruments & Methods in Physics Research Section B

Science of Total Environment

Atmospheric Environment

Science of Total Environment

Atmospheric Environment

Chemosphere

Atmospheric Environment

Effect of local and long-range transport emissions on the elemental composition of PM_10–2.5 and PM_2.5 in Beirut