Elsevier

Canadian Journal of Cardiology

Volume 28, Issue 3, May–June 2012, Pages 326-333
Canadian Journal of Cardiology

Review
The Obesity Epidemic and Its Impact on Hypertension

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cjca.2012.01.001Get rights and content

Abstract

Global obesity rates have increased steadily in both developed and emerging countries over the past several decades with little signs of slowing down. Over 1.5 billion people worldwide are overweight or obese and over 40 million children under the age of 5 are overweight. Obesity is associated with increased morbidity, disability, and premature mortality from cardiovascular disease, diabetes, cancers, and musculoskeletal disorders. The personal and societal health and economic burden of this preventable disease pose a serious threat to our societies. Obesity is a major risk factor for hypertension and cardiovascular disease. Weight loss, through health behaviour modification and dietary sodium restriction, is the cornerstone in the treatment of obesity-related hypertension. Pharmacotherapy and bariatric surgery for obesity are adjunctive measures when health behaviour interventions fail to achieve the body weight and health targets. Successful management of overweight and obese persons requires a comprehensive, multifaceted framework that integrates population health, public health, and medical health models to dismantle the proximal and distal drivers of the obesogenic environment in which we live. Prevention of obesity is no longer a lofty but rather necessary goal that urgently calls for action from governments at all levels, in conjunction with all public and private sector stakeholders, in order to combat a serious and growing public health concern.

Résumé

Le taux d'obésité globale a augmenté de manière régulière dans les pays développés et les pays émergents au cours des dernières décennies, tout en montrant de légers signes de ralentissement. Plus de 1,5 milliard de personnes dans le monde sont préobèses ou obèses, et plus de 40 millions d'enfants de moins de 5 ans sont préobèses. L'obésité est associée à une augmentation de la morbidité, de l'incapacité et de la mortalité prématurée en raison des maladies cardiovasculaires, du diabète, des cancers et des troubles musculosquelettiques engendrés. La santé personnelle et sociale ainsi que le fardeau économique de cette maladie évitable posent un sérieux problème à nos sociétés. L'obésité est un facteur de risque majeur de l'hypertension et des maladies cardiovasculaires. La perte de poids, par la modification des comportements de santé et par la restriction en sodium alimentaire, est la pierre angulaire dans le traitement de l'hypertension liée à l'obésité. La pharmacothérapie et la chirurgie bariatrique sont des moyens auxiliaires lorsque les interventions en matière de comportement de santé ne mènent pas aux objectifs de poids corporel et de santé. La prise en charge réussie des personnes préobèses et obèses requiert un cadre multifacette, détaillé et complet, qui intègre les modèles de santé de la population, de santé publique et de santé médicale pour éliminer les facteurs proximaux et distaux de l'environnement obésogène dans lequel nous vivons. La prévention de l'obésité n'est plus un but noble, mais plutôt un but nécessaire qui exige de manière urgente l'intervention de tous les ordres de gouvernement, conjointement avec toutes les parties prenantes des secteurs public et privé, pour combattre ce sérieux et croissant problème de santé publique.

Section snippets

The Global Epidemic and Burden of Obesity

Globally the prevalence of obesity has been steadily increasing over the past several decades. Data from over 9 million adults in 199 countries have indicated that the BMI increased by 0.4-0.5 per decade worldwide between 1980 and 2008.9 The dramatic rise in obesity rates globally is fueled by the increased availability of energy-dense diets, increasingly sedentary physical activity behaviours and, importantly, mass urbanization in emerging nations. The proportion of the world's population

Causal Link Between Obesity and Hypertension

Hypertension is the most common cardiovascular risk factor predisposing to CAD, stroke, and structural end organ damage.2 The link between obesity and hypertension has been documented in many large population and epidemiological studies in adults and the burden of hypertension attributable to obesity is very high in both men and women.7, 8 Population-based studies consistently demonstrate an increased risk in the development of hypertension among overweight and obese people. Compared with

Health Behaviour Management of Obesity-Related Hypertension in Adults

The cornerstone treatment of obesity-related hypertension is weight loss through health behavioural changes and reduced sodium intake in the diet. Weight loss diminishes both the augmented renin-angiotensin-aldosterone axis activity and the activation of the sympathetic nervous system. Reduction in body fat, especially from the visceral depot, improves insulin resistance and also promotes natriuresis. The general principle of weight loss is the achievement of a net negative energy balance. This

Pharmacotherapy for Obesity

Pharmacotherapy for obesity is considered as an adjunct when health behavioural changes fail to achieve the goal targets in BP and/or other metabolic comorbidities.1 Currently, orlistat is the only drug approved as a long-term weight loss medication. Orlistat is a gastrointestinal lipase inhibitor that reduces dietary fat absorption and fat calorie intake by approximately 30%.45 As expected, the common side effects include bloating, fecal incontinence, and abdominal cramps. After 4 years,

Bariatric Surgery

At present bariatric surgery is considered for individuals with class III obesity (BMI > 40) or class II obesity (BMI > 35) with comorbid conditions such as hypertension and type 2 diabetes.1 Bariatric surgery procedures can be classified as restrictive, malabsorptive, or combination of both restrictive and malabsorptive. Four types of bariatric procedures are now available in Canada.

Firstly, adjustable gastric banding is a restrictive procedure that involves the placement of an adjustable

Management of Obesity-Related Hypertension in Overweight and Obese Adolescents

Health behaviour modification remains the cornerstone for the treatment of overweight and obese adolescents with hypertension and related metabolic comorbidities. However, no consistent protocols are available on such interventions and few published randomized trials report on BP lowering. With a 1-year training program of physical activity, nutrition, and behaviour therapy, SBP and DBP were lowered by 7 and 2 mm Hg respectively.60 A shorter term study reported greater BP reduction by 14 and 9

Proposed Approaches to Tackle the Obesity Epidemic and Its Impact on Hypertension

The global pandemic of obesity can only be effectively reversed by dismantling the principal determinants of the obesogenic environment. Obesity is a serious public health concern and is a consequence of people responding normally to the obesogenic environment where more processed, energy-dense, affordable, and effectively marketed food are in abundant supply, in association with increasingly sedentary physical activity behaviours promoted by the built environment and urbanization. Undeniably

Disclosures

D.C.W.L. has received research funding, honoraria/consulting fees from Alberta Innovates-Health Solutions, Canadian Diabetes Association, Canadian Institutes of Health Research, Boehringer-Ingelheim, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Dainippon, Eli Lilly, Novo Nordisk, Pfizer, and Sanofi; honoraria/consulting fees from Abbott, Allergan, Amgen, Bayer, Merck, and Novartis; and peer-reviewed funding from Alberta Innovates-Health Solutions, Canadian Diabetes Association, and Canadian Institutes of Health

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