A scientific assessment of traditional knowledge on firewood and fodder values in Sikkim, India
Introduction
The conversion of natural forests by humans is the largest single cause of biodiversity loss (Lambin et al., 2001). Forest degradation and destruction is increasing throughout the planet and should be minimised as human existence depends greatly on their productivity (FAO, 2007). In the Himalayas, 76% of total natural resource needs are derived from forests and agroforestry systems, mainly because they are free, easy to access and simple to use (Chettri and Sharma, 2006). Communities living in the Himalayas have developed an age old tradition of selectively using a wide variety of forest resources for firewood, fodder and timber based on their quality and availability (Purohit and Nautiyal, 1987, Rai et al., 2002). Many of the preferred and higher quality species are under pressure, leading to changes in species compositions and forest succession patterns (Sundriyal et al., 1994, Sundriyal and Sharma, 1996, Chettri et al., 2002). In addition, ever-increasing human and livestock populations are exerting additional pressure on forest resources and livelihoods as a result of resource shortages (Chettri and Sharma, 2006). According to Bawa et al. (2004), over half of the world's poorest people who live in environmentally fragile lands such as mountains cannot sustain the livelihoods of their large and growing population. It is therefore necessary to have knowledge of the quality of species that are, or could potentially be used for firewood and fodder as a basis for promoting planting and management of such species, especially in mountain areas. However, the criteria which the local people use in the selection of preferred species is often obscure and generally not understood in scientific terms.
The state of Sikkim in India has 43% of its total geographical area under forest cover, of which 34% is classified as dense forest (Anonymous, 1994). The majority of rural people in Sikkim depend on forests for firewood, fodder, and timber. A substantial portion of these resources comes from natural forests (Sundriyal et al., 1994, Sundriyal and Sharma, 1996, Maharana et al., 2000a) and, to some extent, from agroforestry systems and farm residues (Chettri and Sharma, 2006). As a result, forests across the state are under immense pressure and changes in species composition are occurring, with secondary species such as Euriya acuminata and Symplocos ramosissima becoming increasingly dominant in many forest areas (see Sundriyal et al., 1994, Sundriyal and Sharma, 1996, Chettri et al., 2002).
Although there have been a number of studies on the chemical constituent properties of firewood and fodder plants in the Himalayas (Purohit and Nautiyal, 1987, Balaraman and Golay, 1991, Rai et al., 2002), very few have sought to understand the reasons behind local people's species preferences (Thapa et al., 1997, Walker et al., 1999). Past research has revealed that these preferences depend upon the quality, season of collection and availability of species (Chettri and Sharma, 2006, Maharana et al., 2000a, Thapa et al., 1997, Walker et al., 1999). However, there could be many other contributing factors such as palatability and other nutritive values as revealed by Walker et al. (1999). In this study, we compare the quality of firewood and fodder species, as measured by their chemical constituent properties, with data collected on local species preferences in an effort to understand the scientific basis for such preferences and their implications for future forest resource management in the Sikkim Himalayas.
Section snippets
Study area
The 26-km long Yuksam-Dzongri trekking corridor, which ranges from 1780 to 4000 m in elevation, passes through Sachen, Bakhim and Tshoka in the south-western part of the Khangchendzonga Biosphere Reserve (KBR) in Sikkim, India. Yuksam, a trailhead for this corridor at 1780 m, has 11 settlements with 274 households and a population of 1573, leads to the Base Camp for Mount Khangchendzonga, Dzongri, Thangsing and Gocha La in West Sikkim. Yuksam. One settlement with eight households is located
Methods
An evaluation of people's preference ranking for firewood and fodder species was conducted using the pairwise ranking tool for Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) following methods described by Jain et al. (1999) and Pretty et al. (1995). This exercise was conducted with a group of 20 and 30 local individuals in Tshoka and Yuksam, respectively. The groups, who met in informal gatherings, included farmers, tour guides, porters, hoteliers, pack animal operators and forest officials. A matrix
Community preference rankings
Chemical analysis can indicate the gross-use value of a species (Purohit and Nautiyal, 1987, Walker et al., 1999). In our study, the chemical analysis has significant implications for local knowledge as they rely on the attributes that determines the quality of fodder (crude protein, dry matter, ash content) and firewood (calorific values, density, moisture and ash content) and can be used for the management of forest resources. Community ranking of species revealed that Q. lineata was the most
Conclusion
Sustainable utilisation of forest and associated land resources is a complex issue that encompasses societal needs, ethical and cultural values, and economic status of communities. The result of this study strongly suggests that local knowledge combined with scientific knowledge of properties of species could be the basis for in situ conservation and cultivation of high value firewood and fodder species outside the Khangchendzonga Biosphere Reserve, based on people's preferences to meet their
Acknowledgements
The authors are thankful to the Director, G.B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and Development, and The Mountain Institute, USA for facilities, USAID and IDRC for financial support, and Dr. Rita Sharma for assistance in lab-based analysis. The facility provided by ICIMOD, Kathmandu for the preparation of this paper is highly acknowledged. The authors are also thankful to the two anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments and John Parrotta, Editor of this special issue for his
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Environmental Change and Ecosystem Services, International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, Khumaltar, Lalitpur, GPO Box 3226, Kathmandu, Nepal.