Self-efficacy, social support and well-being: The mediating role of optimism

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Abstract

Self-efficacy, optimism and social support have been consistently related to health and functioning. In this study a specific hypothesis was tested: self-efficacy expectations, as a representation of a capable self, and perceived social support, as a representation of a helpful world, shape optimism which is an outcome expectation. Optimism in turn predicts satisfaction with life and depressive symptoms. Satisfaction with life and depressive symptomatology both served as indicators of well-being. Two hundred and one (201) individuals participated in our study (average age 41.57 years). The hypothesis was tested through Structural Equation Modeling. Six different models with optimism, self-efficacy and social support as possible mediators were consecutively tested and compared. According to only model that provided fit to the data, optimism partially mediates the relation of self-efficacy and perceived social support to well-being. Optimism was predicted by daily emotional support and self-efficacy.

Introduction

According to the social-cognitive theory, expectations play a very important role in shaping behavior, goals and general human functioning (Bandura, 1986). There are two basic types of expectations: the first type, self-efficacy expectations, refers to the personal abilities for achieving a desired outcome, while the other, outcome expectations, refers to the possibility of finally achieving a desired outcome. According to Bandura (1997), self-efficacy expectations are judgments about how well a person can act in a certain way in order to meet a goal or cope effectively with stressful situations. On the other hand, Scheier and Carver (1985) describe optimism as a generalized tendency to expect positive outcomes even in the face of obstacles. The purpose of this study was to examine the ways that expectations interact with perceived social support in shaping well-being, as well as the possible role of optimism as a mediator in the relationship of self-efficacy and social support to well-being.

Both self-efficacy and optimism expectations are related to functioning and health. High self-efficacy is related, for example, to the regulation of the stress process, to higher self-esteem, better well-being, better physical condition, better adaptation to and recovery from acute and chronic diseases (Bandura, 1997, Bisschop et al., 2004, Kuijer and de Ridder, 2003). Furthermore, low self-efficacy is related to more symptoms of anxiety and depression (Faure and Loxton, 2003, Kashdan and Roberts, 2004, Shnek et al., 2001), as well as to lower levels of subjective well-being (Barlow et al., 2002, Bandura et al., 2003, Caprara, 2002).

Optimism is also related to well-being and health. Previous and recent studies (e.g., Chang and Sanna, 2001, Diener et al., 2003, Eid and Diener, 2004, Makikangas and Kinnunen, 2003) have found that optimism significantly predicts several aspects of subjective well-being. Optimism is negatively related to depressive symptomatology both in the general population (Vickers & Vogeltanz, 2000) and in populations with various chronic conditions, such as cardiovascular disease (Shnek et al., 2001). It is also a significant predictor of physical and psychological functioning in patients suffering from various medical conditions (Carver et al., 1993, Fournier et al., 2002). Optimism has been found to be linked to functioning and health both directly and indirectly by means, e.g., of affectivity or self-esteem (Chang and Sanna, 2001, Symister and Friend, 2003). Optimists seem to employ more problem-focused coping strategies and more effective ways of emotional regulation, both of which contribute to better functioning (Taylor & Armor, 1996).

Besides expectations, social support is also related to subjective well-being (Kahn et al., 2003, Mikulincer and Florian, 1998), as well as to depression (Sayal et al., 2002). It is also related to the progress of a variety of chronic conditions, such as cardiovascular diseases, cancer and many others (Bisschop et al., 2004, Garssen, 2004, Heckman, 2003, King, 1997). Hogan et al., 2002, Rhodes, 2004 suggest that individuals with more supportive families or friends have a better health status and they recover faster from health problems, compared to persons who are less socially integrated. Social support seems to exert influence on health both directly and indirectly through certain cognitive mechanisms, coping strategies, and health behaviors (Cohen and Wills, 1985, Davis and Swan, 1999, Wills and Fegan, 2001).

Recent studies have examined the relationship between expectations and social support with respect to human functioning and health. Thompson, Kaslow, Short, and Wyckoff (2002) in a sample of African American abused women found that self-efficacy and suicide attempt status are partially accounted for by the mediation of perceived social support from friends and family. Brissette, Scheier, and Carver (2002) in a sample of university students found that higher levels of optimism were prospectively associated with smaller increases in stress and depression, with social support serving as a mediator. In the same vein, social support has been found to mediate the relationship between optimism and distress in persons who have experienced a traumatic event (Dougall, Hyman, Hayward, McFeeley, & Baum, 2001), as well as between optimism and distress in early-stage breast cancer survivors (Trunzo & Pinto, 2003).

In most cases, perceived social support was studied as a mediating variable. High expectations (self-efficacy or optimism) were related to outcomes through a strong sense of support. Still, a different pattern may also be possible: having high efficacy and a perception of strong support can lead to enhanced optimism expectations and, through this, to better health outcomes. Recently, Cervone (2004) presented a new cognitive ‘architecture’ of personality. In his proposed model, behavior is based on knowledge structures and appraisal processes. The latter abuts on the former. Based on that, one could say that self-efficacy and perceived social support represent knowledge about self (being capable) and the world (being friendly) which in turn results in appraising the future as possibly nice and fruitful (optimism), and in better functioning and better health status.

This study is a part of a broader research effort aimed at the examination of the relations between a range of cognitive factors and human functioning. The purpose of the present study is to examine the hypothesis that optimism is acting as mediator in the relationship of self-efficacy and social support to well-being. Depressive symptoms and social support were used as indicators of well-being.

Section snippets

Participants

Two hundred and one (201) individuals working in four insurance companies participated in our study (56.7% females and 43.3% males). Their average age was 41.57 years (SD = 10.18) ranging from 19 to 62 years. Eighteen (9.0%) had finished elementary school, 96 (47.7%) had finished high school, and 86 (42.8%) were holders of a university degree. Forty-one (20.4%) were single, 145 (72.1%) were living with their family or someone else, and 15 (7.5%) were divorced or widowed.

Measures

Expectations measures.

Results

The principal component factor analysis of the self-efficacy questionnaire revealed the presence of three factors that explained 54.16% of the total variance. The first factor, ‘resilience self-efficacy expectations’, assesses how capable the persons think themselves to be in order to bear the negative consequences of the stressful situation. It consists of seven items (e.g., “capable of bearing the negative consequences of a problem or bad situation”, “remain calm when dealing with a problem”,

Discussion

Expectations regarding personal abilities and future outcomes are central to the formation of human behavior (Bandura, 1986). In this respect we examined the possible role of optimism as a mediator in the relationship between well-being, social support and self-efficacy. Depression and satisfaction with life scales were used as indicators of well-being.

In a number of studies (for example, Brissette et al., 2002, Thompson et al., 2002, Trunzo and Pinto, 2003) social support served as a mediator

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