Facets of mindfulness – Results of an online study investigating the Freiburg mindfulness inventory
Introduction
Mindfulness and its relationship with health related parameters have become a focus of interest within the health sciences. Mindfulness-based-stress reduction (MBSR) programs have generally shown efficacy for improving various medical conditions and emotional symptoms (Baer, 2003, Grossman et al., 2004, Ott et al., 2006), although methodological variability in some studies and particularly paucity of randomized controlled trials precludes strong conclusions (Toneatto & Nguyen, 2007). Nevertheless, there is a growing body of evidence that mindfulness is particularly beneficial for coping with depression, anxiety and stress (Grossman et al., 2004, Segal et al., 2002).
Although the concept of mindfulness was originally derived from Buddhist psychology, mindfulness can be understood in secular terms as the mental ability to focus on the direct and immediate perception of the present moment with a state of non-judgemental awareness, voluntarily suspending evaluative cognitive feedback (Hayes & Shenk, 2004).
With increasing evidence of beneficial health effects of mindfulness training, assessment of mindfulness also became desirable. To date, different scales have been developed such us (1) the Mindfulness and Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS; 15 items, 1 factor, α = .82–.87, rtt1 = .81; Brown & Ryan, 2003), (2) the Kentucky Inventory of Mindfulness Scale (KIMS; 39 items, 4 factors, α = .83–.91, rtt = .65–.86; Baer, Smith, & Allen, 2004), (3) the Five Facets Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ; 39 items; 1 factor, 5 facets, α = .71–.92; Baer, Smith, Hopkins, Krietemeyer, & Toney, 2006) the (4) Toronto Mindfulness Scale (TMS; 39 items, 2 factors, α = .95; Lau et al., 2006), (5) the Cognitive and Affective Mindfulness Scale, Revised (CAMS-R; 12 items, 1 factor, 4 facets, α = .74–.77; Feldman, Hayes, Kumar, Greeson, and Laurenceau, 2007), or (6) the Freiburg Mindfulness Inventory (FMI; Walach, Buchheld, Buttenmüller, Kleinknecht, & Schmidt, 2006), available in a long (FMI-30, 30 items, 1 factor, α = .93−.94) and a short version (FMI-14, 14 items, 1 factor, α = .79−.86). The empirical status of these measures is comparable: all were replicated in confirmatory analysis and have seen promising external validation in different types of populations (with the exception of the CAMS-R that draws from student samples only). However, there are considerable differences concerning the definition and operationalisation of mindfulness: Whereas most inventories include several aspects of mindfulness such as awareness or an attitude of Acceptance, the MAAS focuses exclusively on the subjective experience of awareness. The KIMS and the FFMQ are based on skills as defined in Dialectical Behavior Therapy (Welch, Rizvi, & Dimidjan, 2006). In contrast to the other inventories, the TMS measures mindfulness after meditation as a state-like construct. Finally, the FMI was developed by the help of experts of Buddhist psychology and may thus capture the essence of mindfulness more adequately (Grossman, 2008). For that reason we confined our research to this scale.
Whereas Buchheld, Grossman, and Walach (2001) argued for four interpretable factors of the FMI-30, Walach et al. (2006) have recently presented a one-dimensional short form (FMI-14). On the other hand, Ströhle (2006) found evidence for a two-factorial solution of the short form.
As there is ambiguity concerning the factorial structure, we have decided to further investigate the psychometric properties of the FMI-14 in another validation study to clarify its factorial structure. As mindfulness-based cognitive therapy has been advocated for depression and anxiety treatment (Finucane and Mercer, 2006, Segal et al., 2002), we sought evidence of criterion validity aspects of the scale by testing it together with a modified version of the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-V; Schmitt, Altstötter-Gleich, Hinz, Maes, & Brähler, 2006) and the Trait-Subscale (STAI-T) of the Spielberg State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (Laux, Glanzmann, Schaffner, & Spielberger, 1981). This paper reports on the psychometric properties and factorial structure of the FMI as well as validity aspects with respect to the BDI-V and the STAI-T.
Section snippets
Participants and data collection
The online questionnaire battery consisting of the FMI-14, BDI-V and STAI-T (described below) was presented on a German internet research portal for mindfulness research from November 2006 to January 2007. In order to recruit subjects, student unions were contacted. Subjects were not offered reimbursement but could participate at a prize draw for a pocket PC (Ipod). Additionally, subjects received an individual mindfulness profile. Students were also offered course credits. To ensure data
Sample sociodemographics
Out of the 241 participants, 150 were female and 89 male (2 missing). The mean age was 28.7 years (SD = 8.76); 120 individuals were students.
For 89 participants the motivation to participate in the online study was professional or scientific interest in the study, whereas 49 individuals had a private interest in mindfulness. Seventy-six individuals were not interested in mindfulness but wanted to support the study in order to contribute to a research program and 3 participants were interested in
Discussion
In this paper, we found that both the one-dimensional and the two-factor solution of the FMI-14 show acceptable, but suboptimal fit indices.
In order to further improve the model fit, exploratory factor analyses were conducted: These yielded a reduced two-factor solution (FMI-8), which consisted of four items per factor with good fit indices but lower internal consistency. This statistically derived, reduced two-dimensional solution provided the best model for estimating the observed covariance
Conflict of interest
None.
Acknowledgement
HW and NK are sponsored by the Samueli Institute, Alexandria, USA.
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