ReviewEating behaviors of children in the context of their family environment☆
Introduction
Since the 1970s, the prevalence of obesity, defined as a body mass index (BMI; kg/m2) at or above the 95th percentile for children of the same sex and age, has more than doubled for preschool children (ages 2–5 years) and adolescents (ages 12–19 years), and it has more than tripled for children ages 6–11 years [1]. The increase in childhood obesity is alarming not only because obese children exhibit risk factors for chronic diseases such as hyperlipidemia, hyperinsulinemia, hypertension, and reduced high-density lipoprotein cholesterol [2], [3], [4], [5], [6], but also because both obesity and risk factors for chronic diseases can track from childhood into adulthood and thereby have lasting adverse health effects [7]. Data from a retrospective cohort study indicate that after six years of age, the risk for obesity in adulthood exceeded 50% for obese children, as compared with about 10% for nonobese children [8].
A family history of obesity has been identified as a strong risk factor for adult obesity. It is estimated that parental obesity more than doubles the risk of adult obesity among both obese and nonobese children under 10 years of age [8]. To better prevent childhood and adult obesity, it is crucial to identify early behavioral risk factors that predispose children to excessive weight gain during childhood. The aim of this review is to discuss select eating traits and parent–child resemblances in eating in the context of children's home environment and familial predisposition to obesity.
Section snippets
Obesity ‘runs in families’
Parental obesity, maternal obesity in particular, is a significant predictor of obesity in the offspring. A prospective cohort study by Strauss and Knight [9] showed that children of obese mothers were at a 3-fold increased risk for childhood obesity compared to children of nonobese mothers. Parental obesity confers its risk for obesity in the offspring through both shared genes and environmental factors. A growing body of research has examined direct genetic links between parent and child
High-risk design of obesity
In a high-risk design of obesity, children who are born at ‘high-risk’ are compared to children who are born at ‘low-risk’ for obesity on specific eating behaviors or food preferences. In this design, child risk status for obesity is commonly defined on the basis of parental, typically maternal, weight status [15]. Comparing eating behaviors of children whose parents differ in weight status (e.g., normal-weight versus overweight/obese) can be a useful strategy for testing whether familial
Familial transmission of taste preferences and food selections
Parents influence the development of children's taste preferences and food choices in multiple ways. One, parents pass their own food preferences and taste perceptions on to their children through genetic transmission. Twin designs can be used to provide estimates of genetic and environmental influences on child eating traits and food preferences [15]. For example, when assessing food preferences in 4- to 5-year-old monozygotic and dizygotic twins using maternal report, modest heritability for
Conclusion
The purpose of this review was to illustrate the role of familial predispositions and early influences in the home environment in the intergenerational transmission of food preferences and eating behaviors from parents to their children. More studies are needed to examine early-life risk factors for overeating and excessive weight gain in children from more diverse racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic backgrounds. It is essential to identify children who are at greatest risk for excessive weight
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Cited by (155)
Infant temperament and mealtime distractions as predictors of preschool Children's bite speed during family mealtime
2022, AppetiteCitation Excerpt :To fill this gap in the literature, the current study examined associations between early temperament styles and children's subsequent bite speed during family mealtimes under everyday environmental distractions. Children's eating speed emerge early in infancy in the form of vigorous sucking, which is thought to be equivalent to faster eating speed in later life (Fogel et al., 2017; Kral & Rauh, 2010). Since variation in eating behaviors among individuals emerges over early childhood and tends to persist over time (Ambrosini, 2014; Dubois et al., 2008; Hammer, 1992; Whitaker et al., 1997), researchers have recognized the importance of determining how the ability to self-regulate may be manifested in food approach and withdrawal behaviors (Fisher et al., 2003; Godefroy et al., 2016; Johnson, 2000; Kral & Rauh, 2010).
Associations between maternal eating behaviors and feeding practices in toddlerhood
2022, AppetiteCitation Excerpt :Parents also play a model role in eating (Brown & Ogden, 2004; Carper, Fisher, & Birch, 2000). Previous studies documented a familial transmission of eating behaviors, with similarities between maternal and children's eating behaviors (Jahnke & Warschburger, 2008; Kral & Rauh, 2010; Miller et al., 2020; Wardle et al., 2002; Yelverton et al., 2020). Maternal emotional eating (i.e., eating in response to emotional cues) or uncontrolled eating (i.e., the tendency to overeat when feeling hungry or when exposed to external stimuli) were found positively associated with children's emotional eating in childhood (Jahnke & Warschburger, 2008; Miller et al., 2020; Yelverton et al., 2020), with some differences by child's sex (Jahnke & Warschburger, 2008).
Latent profiles of the feeding practices of caregivers of rural children with overweight and obesity and associations with child eating behaviors
2022, AppetiteCitation Excerpt :While parental weight status has been found to be a strong predictor for child weight outcomes, research also shows that parents can influence eating and body image through their own food-related behaviors (Kral & Rauh, 2010; van den Berg et al., 2002). Parents not only create family food environments with their parenting strategies, but they influence their children's eating by modeling their own behaviors, taste preferences, and food choices as well (Kral & Rauh, 2010). In a longitudinal study by Rodgers et al. (2013), outcomes suggested that maternal body dissatisfaction was related to restrictive feeding practices, and further, maternal dietary restraint mediated the relationship between maternal body dissatisfaction and restrictive feeding practices.
Establishing healthy eating patterns in infancy
2022, Early Nutrition and Long-Term Health: Mechanisms, Consequences, and Opportunities, Second Edition
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Grant support: TVEK is supported by K01DK078601; EMR is supported by K01DK078601-02S2.