Short communicationEducation modulates cortisol reactivity to the Trier Social Stress Test in middle-aged adults
Introduction
It is well known that psychological stress plays an important role in the development of various psychopathologies, including post-traumatic stress disorder, depression, and anxiety (Blake, 2001; McFarlane et al., 2005; Seidler and Wagner, 2006; Shields, 2006). For over a decade now, research has employed challenge tests in order to assess reactive endogenous activity of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis in order to delineate reactivity to stress in humans.
The Trier Social Stress Test (TSST) is a standardized experimental protocol that allows for the induction of moderate psychological stress in a laboratory setting while recording physiological responses to the stressor (Kirschbaum et al., 1993a). The TSST provides an estimate for the potential of the HPA axis to respond to a given stressor (Kirschbaum et al., 1993a). The protocol consists of an anticipation period and a test period in which participants must deliver a free speech on a given topic and perform a mental arithmetic task in front of an audience (Kirschbaum et al., 1993a). This task has been found to induce a two- to four-fold increase in salivary cortisol levels, a major stress hormone that reflects HPA reactivity (Kirschbaum et al., 1992a, Kirschbaum et al., 1995). This procedure further allows one to compare participants’ stress-reactivity levels, allowing for the assessment of individuals differences (Kirschbaum and Hellhammer, 1994).
To date, a plethora of research has found inter-individual variations in the cortisol response to the TSST. Indeed, factors such as age, gender, nicotine consumption, glucose intake, contraceptive use and menstrual phase induce differences in cortisol reactivity to the TSST (Gonzalez-Bono et al., 2002; Kirschbaum et al., 1992a, Kirschbaum et al., 1992b, Kirschbaum et al., 1993b; Kudielka et al., 2004a).
The role and importance of education level has not been acknowledged in the stress-reactivity literature that utilized the TSST. This may largely be due to the fact that many studies that employ the TSST have done so in a relatively homogenous sample of individuals, such as university students.
Social economic status (SES), which often includes education in its measurement, has been reported as an important factor in health status (Marmot and Shipley, 1996). In terms of stress-reactivity studies, only one study has reported lower stress-reactivity in low SES men, using a stress paradigm that included anger recall, arithmetic, and a cold pressor test (Kristenson et al., 1998). However, not only did this study include a stress paradigm that involved both a psychological and physical stress component, the protocol was carried out in two separate cities, and the samples from each city were compared to one another (i.e. Lituanians compared to Swedish). This type of protocol may call for a number of confounders that are not reported in the study results. Other studies, however, have found no such effect of SES on stress-reactivity in either men or women using various stress paradigms (Adler et al., 2000; Kapuku et al., 2002; Steptoe et al., 2005).
Thus, to this end, it was the goal of the present study to evaluate the influence of education level on stress reactivity to the TSST in a sample of male and female middle-aged adults. Adults between the ages of 50 and 65 are a good sample cohort to investigate the influence of education as variability in education will be higher than that normally tested in the TSST literature (i.e. university students).
Section snippets
Method
As part of a larger study, 101 male and female adults between the ages of 50 and 65 years were recruited from the community. Participants were asked to come to the Douglas Hospital Research Centre on two separate occasions. Participants were screened for presence of any Axis I disorders and medications that commonly interact with cortisol secretion (e.g. evothyroxine, glucocorticoids, antidepressants, estrogen replacement therapy). Further, individuals who reported smoking 10 or more cigarettes
Demographics
The sample consisted of 22 males and 79 females, with a mean age of 58.03 (SE=0.42). Seventy-three percent of the participants spoke English and 27% spoke French. In terms of reported income, 44% reported low, 43% reported moderate, and 13% reported high income level. Forty percent of the sample was retired. Regarding Education, 23% finished High School, 18% completed Junior College, 15% attained a technical degree and 49% attended University.
While more females were present than males, there
Discussion
To our knowledge, this is the first study to assess the influence of education level on stress-reactivity to the TSST. While issues such as nicotine consumption, sex of participants and medication have always been a concern and paid close attention to while implementing the TSST protocol, less attention has been given to education level. This may be because the majority of research that employ the TSST as a stressor have done so in university students, which is a very homogenous sample in terms
Role of funding source
This study was funded through an operating grant from the Institute of Aging, Canadian Institutes of Health Research (Grant #135254). The work of A.J. Fiocco was supported by a CIHR Doctoral Training Award and the work of Dr. Lupien is supported by an Investigator Award from the CIHR Institute of Aging. CIHR had no further involvement in the study.
Conflict of interest
None of the authors on this manuscript have any conflict of interest including any financial, personal or other relationships with other people or organizations within three years of beginning the work submitted that could inappropriately influence (bias) their work.
The data contained in the manuscript being submitted have not been previously published, have not been submitted elsewhere and will not be submitted elsewhere while under consideration at Psychoneuroendocrinology.
Acknowledgments
This study was supported through a grant from the Institute of Aging, Canadian Institutes of Health Research (Grant #134254). The work of A.J.F. was supported by a CIHR Doctoral Training Award and the work of S.J.L. is supported by an Investigator Award from the CIHR Institute of Aging. CIHR had no further involvement in the study. We would like to thank Dr. Dominique Walker from the Douglas Hospital Research Centre, for analyses of all salivary cortisol samples.
References (23)
- et al.
Glucose but not protein or fat load amplifies the cortisol response to psychosocial stress
Horm. Behav.
(2002) - et al.
Salivary cortisol in psychoneuroendocrine research: recent developments and applications
Psychoneuroendocrinology
(1994) - et al.
Attenuated cortisol response to psychological stress but not to CRH or ergometry in young habitual smokers
Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav.
(1993) - et al.
HPA axis responses to laboratory psychosocial stress in healthy elderly adults, younger adults, and children: impact of age and gender
Psychoneuroendocrinology
(2004) - et al.
Acute HPA axis responses, heart rate, and mood changes to psychosocial stress (TSST) in humans at different times of day
Psychoneuroendocrinology
(2004) - et al.
Self-esteem, locus of control, hippocampal volume, and cortisol regulation in young and old adulthood
Neuroimage
(2005) - et al.
Socioeconomic position and cardiovascular and neuroendocrine responses following cgntive challenge in old age
Biol. Psychol.
(2005) - et al.
Relationship of subjective and objective social status with psychological and physiological functioning: preliminary data in healthy white women
Health Psychol.
(2000) - et al.
Glucocorticoid release and memory consolidation in men and women
Psychol. Sci.
(2006) Aging, stress, and affective disorders
Semin. Clin. Neuropsychiatry
(2001)
On methods in the analysis of profile data
Psychometrika
Cited by (57)
Executive functioning as a predictor of physiological and subjective acute stress responses in non-clinical adult populations: A systematic literature review and meta-analysis
2021, Neuroscience and Biobehavioral ReviewsCitation Excerpt :Hence, while cognitive flexibility may not be associated with initial cortisol increase, it may be linked to less prolonged cortisol release over the session. Two studies replicated the absence of the association with both percentage increase and change in cortisol (Fiocco et al., 2007), as well as blood pressure and HRV (Mehta, 2012). Flexibility was not associated with distress (Panganiban, 2013).
Neuroendocrine and cardiovascular responses to shifting status
2020, Current Opinion in PsychologyAn introductory guide to conducting the Trier Social Stress Test
2019, Neuroscience and Biobehavioral ReviewsError consciousness predicts physiological response to an acute psychosocial stressor in men
2017, PsychoneuroendocrinologyThe Trier Social Stress Test: Principles and practice
2017, Neurobiology of Stress