ReviewLong-term potentiation in cultured hippocampal neurons
Highlights
► Models were developed for the investigation of LTP in dissociated hippocampal neurons. ► Key features of LTP induction procedures are reviewed. ► Characteristics of NMDAR-LTP in hippocampal neuronal cultures are discussed. ► Molecular mechanisms underlying synaptic activity-induced changes are considered. ► Advantages and limitations of cell culture-based LTP models are highlighted.
Introduction
Understanding the molecular basis of long-term potentiation (LTP) is of fundamental importance because it has been implicated in learning and memory as well as other physiological and pathological processes. One form of LTP develops through the activation of NMDA receptors (NMDARs) and an increase in AMPA receptor (AMPAR) insertion at the post-synaptic membrane [1]. NMDARs are formed from hetero-tetrameric assemblies of GluN1 (previously NR1) subunits with GluN2A–D and GluN3A/B (previously NR2A–D and NR3A/B) subunits [2]. NMDARs require the binding of l-glutamate and the co-agonist glycine, as well as depolarisation, to become activated and conduct Na+, K+, and Ca2+ ions. The voltage-dependent blockade of the NMDAR pore by Mg2+ produces this additional requirement for depolarisation [2]. AMPARs are composed of four subunits, GluA1–4 (previously GluR1–4) [2]. The edited GluA2 subunit is critical for the biophysical properties of AMPARs producing low conductance, non-rectifying, Ca2+-impermeable AMPARs, and postnatally the great majority of AMPARs contain edited GluA2 [2], [3]. AMPARs are activated directly by l-glutamate binding, and their activation leads to changes in the membrane potential of the postsynaptic neuron [2].
Neuronal synapses are densely packed in the brain, making them difficult to analyse and visualise individually in vivo. The most obvious advantage of dissociated neuronal culture is that it makes individual living cells and their synapses more accessible. Dissociated neurons will grow as a monolayer (Fig. 1A) and the surface-expressed neurotransmitter receptors and other membrane proteins are therefore accessible for both immunocytochemical and biochemical analysis (Fig. 1B). Hippocampal neurons in dissociated cultures retain their characteristics, from the properties of the transmitter receptors and ion channels they express, to the organisation of their cytoskeletal constituents and the characteristics of specific synapses. This is due to the fact that they are postmitotic and are therefore committed in their differentiation at the time they are introduced into culture. Neuronal cultures were extensively used to understand the formation and development of synapses [4] and developmental changes in glutamate receptors [5]. Using immunocytochemical approaches, these studies have also provided morphological evidence for “silent synapses” that physically contain NMDARs but no AMPARs [3], [5]. The established link between synaptic plasticity and dendritic exocytosis, along with the demonstration of the role of silent synapses in LTP provided strong stimulus for the development of cellular and molecular techniques that could monitor and interfere with trafficking of AMPARs to and away from synapses. While sustained depression of glutamatergic transmission has been readily induced and studied in neuronal cultures [6], [7], the development of reliable and robust procedures for the induction LTP in dissociated cultures proved to be more challenging. Conventional electrophysiological LTP induction protocols involve an intensive but transient activation of a small set of synapses. In contrast, continuous chemical activation of neuronal networks, which involves many more synapses, maximizes the likelihood of detection of molecular and morphological changes in cells involved [8], [9]. Over the last ten years various protocols were used for the investigation of NMDAR dependent LTP in primary hippocampal neuronal cultures. These models created new opportunities for the study of LTP-related changes in endogenous native proteins and signalling pathways.
This review focuses on experimental models developed for the investigation of LTP in dissociated hippocampal neurons. After the introduction of various LTP induction protocols, some of their applications and limitations will be discussed.
Section snippets
Protocols for the induction of synaptic potentiation in cultured hippocampal neurons
Standard electrode stimulation activates only a small fraction of synapses, making it very difficult to detect molecular and cellular changes associated with LTP. Most biochemical analysis and imaging studies require high proportion of potentiated synapses. Therefore, a range of strategies were applied to chemically induce LTP (Chem-LTP) at a majority of synapses. Several of the Chem-LTP induction protocols were originally developed for electrophysiological studies of brain slices [10], [11],
Characteristics of LTP in hippocampal neuronal cultures
The characterisation of these hippocampal neuronal culture-based plasticity models confirmed that they share many key properties with the NMDAR-dependent LTP of CA1 neurons in hippocampal slices. Chem-LTP in neuronal cultures also requires NMDAR activation and a rise in postsynaptic intracellular Ca2+ concentration [23], [32], [34], [48], [55]. This is consistent with the idea that APV pre-conditioning of hippocampal neuronal cultures and the use of Mg2+ and APV free medium for LTP induction
Recruitment of AMPARs to the cell surface following LTP induction in neuronal cultures
While NMDARs are controlling synaptic plasticity, AMPARs mediate the vast majority of fast excitatory synaptic transmission in the mammalian brain and they are key components of the modifiable synaptic response. A central feature of LTP of excitatory synapses is the recruitment of AMPARs at the postsynaptic site [1]. The availability of antibodies that recognise epitopes of glutamate receptors on living neurons [73], [74], [75] combined with Chem-LTP models in dissociated hippocampal neurons in
Conclusions
Several studies have proved the possibility to chemically promote a lasting increase in synaptic transmission though the activation of NMDARs in hippocampal neuronal cultures. These cell culture-based Chem-LTP models offer several advantages: (1) Hippocampal neurons in culture simplify complex circuitry compare to the considerably more complex brain slice preparations. (2) Relatively simple induction procedures have been developed and characterised. (3) Following induction, the activity of a
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the Medical Research Council UK [Grant 80049] and the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council UK [Grant BB/F011326/1].
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