ReviewNeuroendocrinology of childbirth and mother–child attachment: The basis of an etiopathogenic model of perinatal neurobiological disorders
Section snippets
Introduction: Childbirth as a neurobiological and neuroendocrine event
Physiological changes in the dynamics and mechanics of labor in women have been thoroughly studied (Liao et al., 2005). However, the peripartal neurohormonal scenery in the brain of the mother, the fetus and the newborn has received little attention. Here we will approach human childbirth as a neurohormonal event rather than a mechanical one and we will specifically focus on the peripartal neuroendocrine mechanisms that participate in the generation of mother–child attachment. We will also
Oxytocin
Studies in rodents and sheep indicate that the stimulation of the vagina and cervix at birth plays an important role in the induction of maternal behavior (Keverne et al., 1983, Yeo and Keverne, 1986, Kendrick and Keverne, 1991). Vaginal and cervix stimulation also triggers in sheep the formation of olfactory recognition memory that is essential for the selective recognition of lambs and for the formation of maternal bonding (Keverne et al., 1983, Kendrick et al., 1991b). These effects on
Mother–child synchrony: Importance of skin-to-skin contact
Humans are born biologically prepared to establish coordinated interactions from the first hours of life. Right after delivery occurs the so-called sensitive period, a quiet alertness state that lasts for about two hours (Bystrova et al., 2009). The neonatal sensitive period includes the spontaneous onset of breastfeeding in the first two hours of life. The first hours after birth are also a critical period for the development of attachment behavior (Mehler et al., 2011).
In humans, randomized
Consequences for the newborn
Several circumstances may potentially disrupt the neuroendocrine mechanisms of mother–child attachment during the peripartal period in humans (Fig. 2). One of these is the elimination of labor in planed Cesarean sections. The use of Cesarean section for delivery is continuously rising worldwide, often for non medical reasons. Cesarean rates were of 32.8% in the US in 2011 (Hamilton et al., 2013), 48% in China in 2010 (Lumbiganon et al., 2010, Souza et al., 2010) and 45.9% in Brazil and 41.9% in
Conclusions
Childbirth can be considered as a neurohormonal event where both maternal and fetal brains participate and where a specific neurohormonal scenario is settled. The studies reviewed in this paper suggest that hormonal changes in the maternal and the fetal/newborn brains during parturition, the immediate postpartum period and lactation are involved in the generation of mother–child attachment in humans. Several hormones seem to play a key role in the mechanisms of initiation and consolidation of
Acknowledgments
Grant support from the Fondo de Investigaciones Sanitarias (PI10/00791) and Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad, Spain (BFU2011-30217-C03-01).
References (269)
- et al.
Early maternal separation: neurobehavioral consequences in mother rats
Behav. Brain Res.
(2013) - et al.
Oxytocin shapes the neural circuitry of trust and trust adaptation in humans
Neuron
(2008) - et al.
Histaminergic control of oxytocin release in the paraventricular nucleus during lactation in rats
Exp. Neurol.
(2001) - et al.
Fetal exposure to synthetic oxytocin and the relationship with prefeeding cues within one hour postbirth
Early Hum. Dev.
(2013) - et al.
Brief vs. long maternal separations in infancy: contrasting relationships with adult maternal behavior and lactation levels of aggression and anxiety
Psychoneuroendocrinology
(2001) Maternal nurturing is dependent on her innate anxiety: the behavioral roles of brain oxytocin and vasopressin
Horm. Behav.
(2011)- et al.
Both oxytocin and vasopressin are mediators of maternal care and aggression in rodents: from central release to sites of action
Horm. Behav.
(2012) - et al.
A meta-analysis of passive descent versus immediate pushing in nulliparous women with epidural analgesia in the second stage of labor
J. Obstet. Gynecol. Neonatal. Nurs.
(2008) - et al.
Endocrine induced changes in brain function during pregnancy
Brain Res.
(2010) - et al.
Allopregnanolone in the brain: protecting pregnancy and birth outcomes
Prog. Neurobiol.
(2014)