Phase 2 and 3 cooperative group trials of osteosarcoma therapy published in English after 1998 were identified by a pubmed search with the terms osteosarcoma and treatment. These studies were reviewed for reported adverse events and complications. A pubmed search using the terms “osteosarcoma”, “doxorubicin”, “cisplatin”, “methotrexate”, “ifosfamide”, “etoposide”, “complications”, “adverse effects”, “late effects”, “heart failure”, “nephrotoxicity”, “neurotoxicity”, “hearing loss”,
ReviewSequelae of osteosarcoma medical therapy: a review of rare acute toxicities and late effects
Introduction
Before the 1970s osteosarcoma was treated with surgery alone, and about 80% of patients ultimately died of the disease. The use of multi-agent chemotherapy in the 1970s led to significant increases in event-free and overall survival.1 Present day 5-year event-free and overall survival for localised osteosarcoma are 60–65% and 75–80%, respectively.2, 3 Consequently, a clear understanding of acute complications and late effects of therapy is essential for oncologists caring for the increasing number of survivors of osteosarcoma therapy.
There is considerable agreement among experts about the standard components of multi-agent cytotoxic chemotherapy for osteosarcomas,4 as indicated by an ongoing international collaboration on a phase 3 trial in osteosarcoma: EURAMOS1. Since the 1980s virtually all osteosarcoma treatment and research protocols have included high-dose methotrexate (HDMTX), doxorubicin, and cisplatin, a regimen often referred to as MAP. The standard group of the EURAMOS1 trial (figure 1A) is representative of MAP regimens. Ifosfamide and etoposide are other agents with proven anti-osteosarcoma activity.5 Ifosfamide and etoposide have been variably incorporated into osteosarcoma research and treatment protocols since the mid-1980s. The experimental group of the EURAMOS1 trial (figure 1B) is representative of the manner in which ifosfamide and etoposide have been incorporated into the MAP regimen.
Acute toxicities of MAP and MAP plus ifosfamide and etoposide such as alopecia, myelosuppression, mucositis, and nausea and vomiting are common complications of most cytotoxic chemotherapy regimens. The incidence and management of these common acute toxicities are well known by most oncologists, and therefore common acute toxicities will not be discussed in this review. By contrast, the recognition and understanding of rare toxicities associated with these agents have required cumulative experience acquired through their use in a large number of patients. Thus, the incidence, management, and prevention of rare toxicities of osteosarcoma therapy are less well known. Because few patients with osteosarcoma were cured before the mid-1970s, data regarding the late effects of therapy have only recently become available. Late effects and rare toxicities of osteosarcoma therapy to be addressed in this review include cardiac toxicity (figure 2), acute and chronic nephrotoxicity, neurotoxicity, hearing loss, infertility, and second malignant neoplasms.
Section snippets
Cardiac toxicity
Cardiac toxicity during or following osteosarcoma therapy is exclusively due to doxorubicin, which is given at relatively high doses. Most MAP regimens call for treatment with a cumulative doxorubicin dose of 375–480 mg/m2.2, 3, 6, 7, 8 Doxorubicin administration guidelines are variable, with some protocols recommending continuous infusion and others recommending short infusions. The doxorubicin per-course dose in osteosarcoma protocols varies slightly within the range of 60 to 90 mg/m2, with
Methotrexate-induced neurotoxicity
HDMTX in MAP chemotherapy regimens is typically given at a dose of 12 g/m2, with hydration and alkalinisation to promote methotrexate excretion and leucovorin rescue to protect normal cells from the effects of folate depletion. Acute, transient neurological dysfunction following HDMTX is reported to occur in 0·4–5% of children with osteosarcoma.7, 8, 25, 26 Neurological findings consist of behavioural changes ranging from inappropriate laughter to lethargy, coma, aphasia, and focal sensorimotor
Methotrexate-induced nephrotoxicity
Methotrexate and its metabolites can precipitate in renal tubules, particularly at alkaline pH, causing acute renal insufficiency and failure. Because methotrexate is eliminated primarily by the kidneys, renal insufficiency following methotrexate administration prolongs exposure to methotrexate, which in turn increases the risk of other methotrexate-associated toxicities, particularly myelosuppression, mucocitis, hepatitis, and dermatitis. Early studies of HDMTX done in the 1970s showed that
Ototoxicity
Cisplatin causes hearing loss that is most pronounced at high frequencies, but progresses to include the lower frequencies in more severe cases. The risk of ototoxicity increases significantly with higher cumulative doses of cisplatin,60 higher individual doses of cisplatin,61, 62, 63 younger age,63 and co-administration of aminoglycosides. The reported rates of hearing loss following cisplatin therapy vary between studies, due to the use of different grading scales and different cumulative
Infertility
The effect of cisplatin on male fertility has been most often studied in men undergoing treatment for testicular cancer. In this setting, 36% of men with normal pre-treatment sperm production who received cisplatin-containing regimens developed oligospermia or azoospermia.65 In these patients, the risk of gonadal dysfunction after cisplatin treatment was related to cumulative dose, with 19% of men who received 400 mg/m2 cisplatin developing decreased sperm production compared with 47% of men
Second malignant neoplasms
Four reports have examined the incidence of second malignant neoplasms (SMNs) following osteosarcoma therapy.72, 73, 74, 75 The reported 10-year cumulative incidence of SMNs in osteosarcoma survivors ranges from 2–4·6%. This represents an increased risk of malignancy compared with the general population. The reported magnitudes of the increased risk are 4·674 and 10·4.72 The SMNs for which this population is at increased risk, in approximate order of decreasing frequency include leukaemia,
Implications for clinical practice
Preventing the rare therapy-associated toxicities discussed in this review involves careful adherence to well established administration guidelines particularly for HDMTX, cisplatin, and ifosfamide. Early recognition of treatment-related toxicities is essential, and can prevent the occurrence of further complications. Treatment-related toxicities requiring close monitoring during therapy include cardiac dysfunction, electrolyte imbalances, renal insufficiency, and delayed methotrexate
Future directions
Because osteosarcoma is rare, the number of patients available to participate in randomised trials is limited, and research questions to be explored by randomised trials need to be prioritised. Until higher overall survival is achieved, questions addressing therapeutic efficacy are likely to be prioritised over questions that address toxicity. Nevertheless, several important questions regarding chemotherapy administration practices and antidotes for active anti-osteosarcoma cytotoxic
Conclusion
Given the intensity of osteosarcoma therapy and the number of potential treatment-related complications, most patients with osteosarcoma will experience at least one of the treatment sequelae discussed here. Consequently, clinicians need to be familiar with the prevention, early recognition, and management of these rare toxicities and late effects. Reducing the complications of osteosarcoma medical therapy is an important goal for the sarcoma research community, and will require the
Search strategy and selection criteria
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