Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-gtxcr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-20T04:40:55.076Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

A unifying perspective on personality pathology across the life span: Developmental considerations for the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 July 2009

Jennifer L. Tackett ,
Steve Balsis ,
Thomas F. Oltmanns  and
Robert F. Krueger
Jennifer L. Tackett*
Affiliation:
University of Toronto
Steve Balsis
Affiliation:
Texas A&M University
Thomas F. Oltmanns
Affiliation:
Washington University in St. Louis
Robert F. Krueger
Affiliation:
Washington University in St. Louis
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Jennifer L. Tackett, Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3G3, Canada; E-mail: tackett@psych.utoronto.ca.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Proposed changes in the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-V) include replacing current personality disorder (PD) categories on Axis II with a taxonomy of dimensional maladaptive personality traits. Most of the work on dimensional models of personality pathology, and on personality disorders per se, has been conducted on young and middle-aged adult populations. Numerous questions remain regarding the applicability and limitations of applying various PD models to early and later life. In the present paper, we provide an overview of such dimensional models and review current proposals for conceptualizing PDs in DSM-V. Next, we extensively review existing evidence on the development, measurement, and manifestation of personality pathology in early and later life focusing on those issues deemed most relevant for informing DSM-V. Finally, we present overall conclusions regarding the need to incorporate developmental issues in conceptualizing PDs in DSM-V and highlight the advantages of a dimensional model in unifying PD perspectives across the life span.

Type
Regular Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 21 , Issue 3: Precursors and Diverse Pathways to Personality Disorder in Children and Adolescents: Part 1 , August 2009 , pp. 687 - 713
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2009

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Agronin, M. E. (2007). Personality is as personality does. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 15, 729–733.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Agronin, M. E., & Maletta, G. (2000). Personality disorders in later life: Understanding and overcoming the gap in research. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 8, 4–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. (1980). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. (1987). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (3rd ed., rev.). Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text revision). Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar
Ames, A., & Molinari, V. (1994). Prevalence of personality disorders in community-living elderly. Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology, 7, 189–194.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anglin, D. M., Cohen, P. R., & Chen, H. (2008). Duration of early maternal separation and prediction of schizotypal symptoms from early adolescence to midlife. Schizophrenia Research, 103, 143–150.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Balsis, S., & Cooper, L. D. (2009). Measuring personality disorders in later life: Hybrid criteria. Manuscript submitted for publication.Google Scholar
Balsis, S., Gleason, M. E. J., Woods, C. M., & Oltmanns, T. F. (2007). An item response theory analysis of DSM-IV personality disorder criteria across younger and older age groups. Psychology and Aging, 22, 171–185.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Balsis, S., Woods, C. M., Gleason, M. E. J., & Oltmanns, T. F.(in press). The over and under diagnosis of personality disorders in older adults. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry.Google Scholar
Barry, C. T., Frick, P. J., Adler, K. K., & Grafeman, S. J. (2007). The predictive utility of narcissism among children and adolescents: Evidence for a distinction between adaptive and maladaptive narcissism. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 16, 508–521.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barry, C. T., Frick, P. J., & Killian, A. L. (2003). The relation of narcissism and self-esteem to conduct problems in children: A preliminary investigation. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 32, 139–152.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barry, C. T., Grafeman, S. J., Adler, K. K., & Pickard, J. D. (2007). The relations among narcissism, self-esteem, and delinquency in a sample of at-risk adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 30, 933–942.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barry, T. D., Barry, C. T., Deming, A. M., & Lochman, J. E. (2008). Stability of psychopathic characteristics in childhood: The influence of social relationships. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 35, 244–262.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barry, T. D., Thompson, A., Barry, C. T., Lochman, J. E., Adler, K., & Hill, K. (2007). The importance of narcissism in predicting proactive and reactive aggression in moderately to highly aggressive children. Aggressive Behavior, 33, 185–197.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baumeister, R. F. (1997). Identity, self-concept, and self-esteem: The self lost and found. In Hogan, R., Johnson, J., & Briggs, S. (Eds.), Handbook of personality psychology (pp. 681–710). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Becker, D. F., Grilo, C. M., Morey, L. C., Walker, M. L., Edell, W. S., & McGlashan, T. H. (1999). Applicability of personality disorder criteria to hospitalized adolescents: Evaluation of internal consistency and criterion overlap. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 38, 200–205.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Becker, D. F., McGlashan, T. H., & Grilo, C. M. (2006). Exploratory factor analysis of borderline personality disorder criteria in hospitalized adolescents. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 47, 99–105.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bernstein, D. P., Cohen, P., Skodol, A., Bezirganian, S., & Brook, J. S. (1996). Childhood antecedents of adolescent personality disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 153, 907–913.Google ScholarPubMed
Bernstein, D. P., Cohen, P., Velez, N., Schwab-Stone, M., Siever, L. J., & Shinsato, L. (1993). Prevalence and stability of the DSM-III-R personality disorders in a community-based survey of adolescents. American Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 1237–1243.Google Scholar
Black, D. W., Baumgard, C. H., & Bell, S. E. (1995). A 16- to 45-year follow-up of 71 men with antisocial personality disorder. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 36, 130–140.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blair, R. J. R., Peschardt, K. S., Budhani, S., Mitchell, D. G. V., & Pine, D. S. (2006). The development of psychopathy. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47, 262–275.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blashfield, R. K., & Intoccia, V. (2000) Growth of the literature on the topic of personality disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 472–473.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Block, J. (1971). Lives through time. Berkeley, CA: Bancroft Books.Google Scholar
Bradley, R., & Westen, D. (2005). The psychodynamics of borderline personality disorder: A view from developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 927–957.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brent, D. A., Johnson, B. A., Perper, J., Connolly, J., Bridge, J., Bartle, S., et al. (1994). Personality disorder, personality traits, impulsive violence, and completed suicide in adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 33, 1080–1086.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burnette, M. L., South, S. C., & Reppucci, N. D. (2007). Cluster B personality pathology in incarcerated girls: Structure, comorbidity, and aggression. Journal of Personality Disorders, 21, 262–272.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caplan, R. (1994). Communication deficits in childhood schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 20, 671–683.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carlson, G. A., & Fish, B. (2005). Longitudinal course of schizophrenia spectrum symptoms in offspring of psychiatrically hospitalized mothers. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 15, 362–383.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caspi, A., & Bem, D. J. (1990). Personality continuity and change across the life course. In. Pervin, L. A. (Ed.), Handbook of personality: Theory and research (pp. 549–575). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Caspi, A., & Moffitt, T. E. (1993). When do individual differences matter? A paradoxical theory of personality coherence. Psychological Inquiry, 4, 247–271.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chanen, A. M., Jovev, M., & Jackson, H. J. (2007). Adaptive functioning and psychiatric symptoms in adolescents with borderline personality disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 68, 297–306.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chanen, A. M., & McCutcheon, L. K. (2008). Personality disorder in adolescence: The diagnosis that dare not speak its name. Personality and Mental Health, 2, 35–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chen, H., Cohen, P., Kasen, S., & Johnson, J. G. (2006). Adolescent axis I and personality disorders predict quality of life during young adulthood. Journal of Adolescent Health, 39, 14–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (1996). Equifinality and multifinality in developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 8, 597–600.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, L. A. (2005). Stability and change in personality pathology: Revelations of three longitudinal studies. Journal of Personality Disorders, 19, 524–532.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clark, L. A. (2007). Assessment and diagnosis of personality disorder: Perennial issues and an emerging reconceptualization. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 227–257.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, P. (2005). Response to comments on our review of the children in the community study of personality disorder in a general population of youth. Journal of Personality Disorders, 19, 594–596.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, P., Chen, H., Kasen, S., Johnson, J. G., Crawford, T., & Gordon, K. (2005). Adolescent cluster A personality disorder symptoms, role assumption in the transition to adulthood, and resolution or persistence of symptoms. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 549–568.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cohen, P., Crawford, T. N., Johnson, J. G., & Kasen, S. (2005). The children in the community study of developmental course of personality disorder. Journal of Personality Disorders, 19, 466–486.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Costa, P. T., & McCrae, R. R. (1986). Personality stability and its implications for clinical psychology. Clinical Psychology Review, 6, 407–423.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Costa, P. T., & McCrae, R. R. (1988). Personality in adulthood: A six-year longitudinal study of self-reports and spouse ratings on the NEO Personality Inventory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 853–863.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Costa, P. T., & McCrae, R. R. (1992). Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R) and NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI) professional manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.Google Scholar
Costa, P. T., & McCrae, R. R. (2006). Age changes in personality and their origins: Comment on Roberts, Walton, and Viechtbauer (2006). Psychological Bulletin, 132, 26–28.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Costa, P. T., McCrae, R. R., Zonderman, A. B., Barbano, H. E., Lebowitz, B., & Larson, D. M. (1986). Cross-sectional studies of personality in a national sample: 2. Stability in neuroticism, extraversion, and openness. Psychology and Aging, 1, 144–149.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Costa, P. T., & Widiger, T. A. (2001). Personality disorders and the five-factor model of personality (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Crawford, T. N., Cohen, P., & Brook, J. S. (2001a). Dramatic–erratic personality disorder symptoms: I. Continuity from early adolescence into adulthood. Journal of Personality Disorders, 15, 319–335.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crawford, T. N., Cohen, P., & Brook, J. S. (2001b). Dramatic–erratic personality disorder symptoms: II. Developmental pathways from early adolescence to adulthood. Journal of Personality Disorders, 15, 336–350.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crawford, T. N., Cohen, P., Johnson, J. G., Sneed, J. R., & Brook, J. S. (2004). The course and psychosocial correlates of personality disorder symptoms in adolescence: Erikson's developmental theory revisited. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 33, 373–387.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crawford, T. N., Shaver, P. R., Cohen, P., Pilkonis, P. A., Gillath, O., & Kasen, S. (2006). Self-reported attachment, interpersonal aggression, and personality disorder in a prospective community sample of adolescents and adults. Journal of Personality Disorders, 20, 331–351.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crick, N. R., Murray-Close, D., & Woods, K. (2005). Borderline personality features in childhood: A short-term longitudinal study. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 1051–1070.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crowell, S. E., Beauchaine, T. P., McCauley, E., Smith, C. J., Stevens, A. L., & Sylvers, P. (2005). Psychological, autonomic, and serotonergic correlates of parasuicide among adolescent girls. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 1105–1127.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
De Clercq, B., De Fruyt, F., & Mervielde, I. (2003). Construction of the Dimensional Personality Symptom Item Pool in children (DIPSI). Unpublished manuscript, Ghent University, Belgium.Google Scholar
De Clercq, B., De Fruyt, F., & Widiger, T. A. (2009). Integrating a developmental perspective in dimensional models of personality disorder. Clinical Psychology Review, 29, 154–162.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Diforio, D., Walker, E. F., & Kestler, L. P. (2000). Executive functions in adolescents with schizotypal personality disorder. Schizophrenia Research, 42, 125–134.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Downey, G., & Feldman, S. I. (1996). Implications of rejection sensitivity for intimate relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 1327–1343.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eppright, T. D., Kashani, J. H., Robison, B. D., & Reid, J. C. (1993). Comorbidity of conduct disorder and personality disorders in an incarcerated juvenile population. American Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 1233–1236.Google Scholar
Field, D., & Millsap, R. E. (1991). Personality in advanced old age: Continuity or change? Journals of Gerontology, 46, 299–308.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
First, M. B., Bell, C. B., Cuthbert, B., Krystal, J. H., Malison, R., Offord, D. R., et al. (2002). Personality disorders and relational disorders: A research agenda for addressing crucial gaps in DSM. In Kupfer, D. J., First, M. B., & Regier, D. A. (Eds.), A research agenda for DSM-V (pp. 123–199). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar
Fonagy, P., & Bateman, A. (2008). The development of borderline personality disorder—A mentalizing model. Journal of Personality Disorders, 22, 4–21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fonseca-Pedrero, E., Lemos-Giraldez, S., Muniz, J., Garcia-Cueto, E., & Campillo-Alvarez, A. (2008). Schizotypy in adolescence: The role of gender and age. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 196, 161–165.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Forsman, M., Lichtenstein, P., Andershed, H., & Larsson, H. (2008). Genetic effects explain the stability of psychopathic personality from mid- to late adolescence. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 117, 606–617.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frick, P. J., Bodin, S. D., & Barry, C. T. (2000). Psychopathic traits and conduct problems in community and clinic-referred samples of children: Further development of the Psychopathy Screening Device. Psychological Assessment, 12, 382–393.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Geiger, T., & Crick, N. R. (2001). A developmental psychopathology perspective on vulnerability to personality disorders. In Ingram, R. & Price, J. M. (Eds.), Vulnerability to psychopathology: Risk across the life span. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Gelhorn, H. L., Sakai, J. T., Price, R. K., & Crowley, T. J. (2007). DSM-IV conduct disorder criteria as predictors of antisocial personality disorder. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 48, 529–538.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Glenn, A. L., Raine, A., Venables, P. H., & Mednick, S. A. (2007). Early temperamental and psychophysiological precursors of adult psychopathic personality. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 116, 508–518.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldberg, L. R. (1993). The structure of phenotypic personality traits. American Psychologist, 48, 26–34.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grilo, C. M., Becker, D. F., Fehon, D. C., Walker, M. L., Edell, W. S., & McGlashan, T. H. (1996). Gender differences in personality disorders in psychiatrically hospitalized adolescents. American Journal of Psychiatry, 153, 1089–1091.Google ScholarPubMed
Grilo, C. M., McGlashan, T. H., Quinlan, D. M., Walker, M. L., Greenfeld, D., & Edell, W. S. (1998). Frequency of personality disorders in two age cohorts of psychiatric inpatients. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155, 140–142.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gunderson, J. G., & Lyons-Ruth, K. (2008). BPD's interpersonal hypersensitivity phenotype: A gene–environment–developmental model. Journal of Personality Disorders, 22, 22–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guzder, J., Paris, J., Zelkowitz, P., & Marchessault, K. (1996). Risk factors for borderline pathology in children. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 26–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harkness, A. R., McNulty, J. L., & Ben-Porath, Y. S. (1995). The Personality Psychopathology Five (PSY-5): Constructs and MMPI-2 Scales. Psychological Assessment, 7, 104–114.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hergovich, A., Schott, R., & Arendasy, M. (2008). On the relationship between paranormal belief and schizotypy among adolescents. Personality and Individual Differences, 45, 119–125.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Houston, R. J., Bauer, L. O., & Hesselbrock, V. M. (2004). Effects of borderline personality disorder features and a family history of alcohol or drug dependence on P300 in adolescents. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 53, 57–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jablensky, A. (2002). The classification of personality disorders: Critical review and need for rethinking. Psychopathology, 35, 112–116.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnson, J. G., Chen, H. & Cohen, P. (2004). Personality disorder traits during adolescence and relationships with family members during the transition to adulthood. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72, 923–932.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnson, J. G., Cohen, P., Kasen, S., Skodol, A. E., Hamagami, F., & Brook, J. S. (2000). Age-related change in personality disorder trait levels between early adolescence and adulthood: A community-based longitudinal investigation. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 102, 265–275.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnson, J. G., Cohen, P., Skodol, A. E., Oldham, J. M., Kasen, S., & Brook, J. S. (1999). Personality disorders in adolescence and risk of major mental disorders and suicidality during adulthood. Archives of General Psychiatry, 56, 805–811.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnson, J. G., Cohen, P., Smailes, E. M., Skodol, A. E., Brown, J., & Oldham, J. M. (2001). Childhood verbal abuse and risk for personality disorders during adolescence and early adulthood. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 42, 16–23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kagan, J. (1969). The three faces of continuity in human development. In Goslin, D. A. (Ed.), Handbook of socialization theory and research (pp. 53–65). Chicago: Rand McNally.Google Scholar
Kasen, S., Cohen, P., Skodol, A. E., Johnson, J. G., Smailes, E., & Brook, J. S. (2001). Childhood depression and adult personality disorder: Alternative pathways of continuity. Archives of General Psychiatry, 58, 231–236.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kihlstrom, J. F., & Hastie, R. (1997). Mental representations of persons and personality. In Hogan, R., Johnson, J., & Briggs, S. (Eds.), Handbook of personality psychology (pp. 712–735). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Krischer, M. K., Sevecke, K., Lehmkuhl, G., & Pukrop, R. (2007). Dimensional assessment of personality pathology in female and male juvenile delinquents. Journal of Personality Disorders, 21, 675–689.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krueger, R. F., Markon, K. E., Patrick, C. J., & Iacono, W. G. (2005). Externalizing psychopathology in adulthood: A dimensional-spectrum conceptualization and its implications for DSM-V. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 114, 537–550.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krueger, R. F., Skodol, A. E., Livesley, W. J., Shrout, P., & Huang, Y. (2007). Synthesizing dimensional and categorical approaches to personality disorders: Refining the research agenda for DSM-V Axis II. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 16, S65–S73.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Levy, K. L. (2005). The implications of attachment theory and research for understanding borderline personality disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 959–986.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Levy, K. N., Becker, D. F., Grilo, C. M., Mattanah, J. J. F., Garnet, K. E., Quinlan, D. M., et al. (1999). Concurrent and predictive validity of the personality disorder diagnosis in adolescent inpatients. American Journal of Psychiatry, 156, 1522–1528.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lewinsohn, P. M., Rohde, P., Seeley, J. R., & Klein, D. N. (1997). Axis II psychopathology as a function of Axis I disorders in childhood and adolescence. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 1752–1759.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lewis, M. (2001). Issues in the study of personality development. Psychological Inquiry, 12, 67–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Livesley, W. J. (2003). Diagnostic dilemmas in classifying personality disorder. In Phillips, K. A., First, M. B., & Pincus, H. A. (Eds.), Advancing DSM: Dilemmas in psychiatric diagnosis (pp. 153–190). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar
Livesley, W. J. (2005). Behavioral and molecular genetic contributions to a dimensional classification of personality disorder. Journal of Personality Disorders, 19, 131–155.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Livesley, W. J., & Jang, K. L. (2000). Toward an empirically based classification of personality disorder: Critical issues in the classification of personality disorder. Journal of Personality Disorders, 14, 137–151.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ludolph, P. S., Westen, D., Misle, B., Jackson, A., Wixom, J., & Wiss, F. C. (1990). The borderline diagnosis in adolescents: Symptoms and developmental history. American Journal of Psychiatry, 147, 470–476.Google ScholarPubMed
Lynam, D. R. (1996). Early identification of chronic offenders: Who is the fledgling psychopath? Psychological Bulletin, 120, 209–234.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lynam, D. R., Caspi, A., Moffitt, T. E., Raine, A., Loeber, R., & Stouthamer-Loeber, M. (2005). Adolescent psychopathy and the big five: Results from two samples. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 33, 431–443.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lynam, D. R., Loeber, R., & Stouthamer-Loeber, M. (2008). The stability of psychopathy from adolescence into adulthood: The search for moderators. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 35, 228–243.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Markon, K., Krueger, R. F., & Watson, D. (2005). Delineating the structure of normal and abnormal personality: An integrative hierarchical approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88, 139–157.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McCrae, R. R., & Costa, P. T. (1987). Validation of the five-factor model of personality across instruments and observers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 81–90.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McCrae, R. R, Costa, P. T. Jr., Ostendorf, F., Angleitner, A., Hrebickova, M., Avia, M. D., et al. (2000). Nature over nurture: Temperament, personality, and life span development. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 173–186.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miller, A. L., Muehlenkamp, J. J., & Jacobson, C. M. (2008). Fact or fiction: Diagnosing borderline personality disorder in adolescents. Clinical Psychology Review, 28, 969–981.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Millon, T. (2002). Assessment is not enough: The SPA should participate in constructing a comprehensive clinical science of personality. Journal of Personality Assessment, 78, 209–218.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mischel, W. (1969). Continuity and change in personality. American Psychologist, 24, 1012–1018.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mischel, W. (2004). Toward an integrative science of the person. Annual Review of Psychology, 55, 1–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., Harrington, H., & Milne, B. J. (2002). Males on the life-course-persistent and adolescence-limited antisocial pathways: Follow-up at age 26 years. Development and Psychopathology, 14, 179–207.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morey, L. C. (1991). Personality Assessment Inventory. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.Google Scholar
Morey, L. C. (2003). Essentials of PAI assessment. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Morf, C. C., & Rhodewalt, F. (2001). Unraveling the paradoxes of narcissism: A dynamic self-regulatory processing model. Psychological Inquiry, 12, 177–196.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mroczek, D. K., Hurt, S. W., & Berman, W. H. (1999). Conceptual and methodological issues in the assessment of personality disorder in older adults. In Rosowsky, E., Abrams, R. C., & Zweig, R. A. (Eds.), Personality disorders in older adults: Emerging issues in diagnosis and treatment (pp. 135–152). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Mulder, R. (2008). Commentary: Personality disorder in adolescence: The diagnosis that dare not speak its name. Personality and Mental Health, 2, 44–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Muñoz, L. C., Kerr, M., & Besic, N. (2008). The peer relationships of youths with psychopathic personality traits. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 35, 212–227.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mussen, P. H., Conger, J. J., Kagan, J., & Huston, A. C. (1990). Child development and personality (7th ed.). New York: Harper & Row.Google Scholar
Paris, J. (2002). Implications of long-term outcome research for the management of patient with borderline personality disorder. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 10, 315–323.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Paris, J. (2003). Personality disorders over time: Precursors, course, and outcome. Journal of Personality Disorders, 17, 479–488.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Paris, J. (2008). Commentary: Personality disorder in adolescence: The diagnosis that dare not speak its name. Personality and Mental Health, 2, 42–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Paris, J., Brown, R., & Nowlis, D. (1987). Long-term follow-up of borderline patients in a general hospital. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 29, 530–535.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Piatigorsky, A., & Hinshaw, S. P. (2004). Psychopathic traits in boys with and without attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Concurrent and longitudinal correlates. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 32, 535–550.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Posner, M. I., Rothbart, M. K., Vizueta, N., Thomas, K. M., Levy, K. N., Fossella, J., et al. (2003). An approach to the psychobiology of personality disorders. Development and Psychopathology, 15, 1093–1106.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Raine, A. (2006). Schizotypal personality: Neurodevelopmental and psychosocial trajectories. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 2, 291–326.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reich, D. B., & Zanarini, M. C. (2001). Developmental aspects of borderline personality disorder. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 9, 294–301.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rettew, D. C. (2000). Avoidant personality disorder, generalized social phobia and shyness: Putting the personality back into personality disorders. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 8, 283–297.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rettew, D. C., Zanarini, M. C., Yen, S., Grilo, C. M., Skodol, A. E., Shea, M. T., et al. (2003). Childhood antecedents of avoidant personality disorder: A retrospective study. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 42, 1122–1130.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rey, J. M., Morris-Yates, A., Singh, M., Andrews, G., & Stewart, G. W. (1995). Continuities between psychiatric disorders in adolescents and personality disorders in young adults. American Journal of Psychiatry, 152, 895–900.Google ScholarPubMed
Reynolds, S. K., & Clark, L. A. (2001). Predicting dimensions of personality disorder from domains and facets of the five-factor model. Journal of Personality, 69, 199–222.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roberts, B. W., & Caspi, A. (2001). Personality development and the person-situation debate: It's déjà vu all over again. Psychology Inquiry, 12, 104–109.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roberts, B. W., & DelVecchio, W. F. (2000). The rank-order consistency of personality traits from childhood to old age: A quantitative review of longitudinal studies. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 3–25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roberts, B. W., Walton, K. E., & Viechtbauer, W. (2006). Patterns of mean-level change in personality traits across the life course: A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 1–25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rogosch, F. A., & Cicchetti, D. (2004). Child maltreatment and emergent personality organization: Perspectives from the five-factor model. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 32, 123–145.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rogosch, F. A., & Cicchetti, D. (2005). Child maltreatment, attention networks, and potential precursors to borderline personality disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 1071–1089.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosowsky, E., & Gurian, B. (1992). Impact of borderline personality disorder in later life on systems of care. Hospital & Community Psychiatry, 43, 386–389.Google Scholar
Rothbart, M. K., Ahadi, S. A., Hershey, K., & Fisher, P. (2001). Investigations of temperament at three to seven years: The Children's Behavior Questionnaire. Child Development, 72, 1394–1408.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rudd, M. D., Joiner, T. E., & Rumzek, H. (2004). Childhood diagnoses and later risk for multiple suicide attempts. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 34, 113–125.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rutter, M., Kim-Cohen, J., & Maughan, B. (2006). Continuities and discontinuities in psychopathology between childhood and adult life. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47, 276–295.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sadavoy, J. (1987). Character pathology in the elderly. Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 20, 165–178.Google ScholarPubMed
Sadavoy, J. (1996). Personality disorder in old age: Symptom expression. Clinical Gerontologist, 16, 19–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Salekin, R. T., Leistico, A. R., Trobst, K. K., Schrum, C. L., & Lochman, J. E. (2005). Adolescent psychopathy and personality theory—The interpersonal circumplex: Expanding evidence of a nomological net. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 33, 445–460.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Salekin, R. T., Rosenbaum, J., & Lee, Z. (2008). Child and adolescent psychopathy: Stability and change. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 15, 224–236.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Samejima, F. (1969). Estimation of latent ability using a response pattern of graded scores. Psychometrika Monograph, 34 (Suppl.), 100.Google Scholar
Segal, D. L., Coolidge, F. L., & Rosowsky, E. (2006). Personality disorders and older adults: Diagnosis, assessment, and treatment. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Shedler, J., & Westen, D. (1998). Refining the measurement of Axis II: A Q-sort procedure for assessing personality pathology. Assessment, 5, 335–355.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shiner, R. L., & Caspi, A. (2003). Personality differences in childhood and adolescence: Measurement, development, and consequences. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 44, 2–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Silk, K. R. (2008). Commentary: Personality disorder in adolescence: The diagnosis that dare not speak its name. Personality and Mental Health, 2, 46–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Skodol, A. E., Gunderson, J. G., Shea, M. T., McGlashan, T. H., Morey, L. C., Sanislow, C. A., et al. (2005). The Collaborative Longitudinal Personality Disorders Study (CLPS): Overview and implications. Journal of Personality Disorders, 19, 487–504.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Skodol, A. E., Siever, L. J., Livesley, W. J., Gunderson, J. G., Pfohl, B., & Widiger, T. A. (2002). The borderline diagnosis II: Biology, genetics, and clinical course. Biological Psychiatry, 51, 951–963.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sroufe, L. A., Carlson, E. A., Levy, A. K., & Egeland, B. (1999). Implications of attachment theory for developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 11, 1–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tackett, J. L. (2006). Evaluating models of the personality–psychopathology relationship in children and adolescents. Clinical Psychology Review, 26, 584–599.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tackett, J. L., Krueger, R. F., Iacono, W. G., & McGue, M. (2008). Personality in middle childhood: A hierarchical structure and longitudinal connections with personality in late adolescence. Journal of Research in Personality, 42, 1456–1462.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tackett, J. L., Quilty, L. C., Sellbom, M., Rector, N., & Bagby, R. M. (2008). Additional evidence for a quantitative hierarchical model of mood and anxiety disorders for DSM-V: The context of personality structure. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 117, 812–825.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tackett, J. L., Silberschmidt, A., Krueger, R. F., & Sponheim, S. (2008). A dimensional model of personality disorder: Incorporating Cluster A characteristics. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 117, 454–459.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Terracciano, A., McCrae, R. R., Brant, L. J., & Costa, P. T. Jr. (2005). Hierarchical linear modeling analyses of the NEO-PI-R scales in the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging. Psychology and Aging, 20, 493–506.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thomaes, S., Bushman, B. J., Stegge, H., & Olthof, T. (2008). Trumping shame by blasts of noise: Narcissism, self-esteem, shame, and aggression in young adolescents. Child Development, 79, 1792–1801.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thomaes, S., Stegge, H., Bushman, B. J., Olthof, T., & Denissen, J. (2008). Development and validation of the childhood narcissism scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 90, 382–391.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Trull, T. J. (2001). Relationships of borderline features to parental mental illness, childhood abuse, Axis I disorder, and current functioning. Journal of Personality Disorders, 15, 19–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tyrer, P. (2005). Temporal change: The third dimension of personality disorder. Journal of Personality Disorders, 19, 573–580.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tyrer, P. (2007). Personality diatheses: A superior explanation than disorder. Psychological Medicine, 37, 1521–1525.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Alphen, S. P. J., Engelen, G. J. J. A., Kuin, Y., Hoijtink, H. J. A., & Derksen, J. J. L. (2006). A preliminary study of the diagnostic accuracy of the Gerontological Personality Disorders Scale (GPS). International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 21, 862–868.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Verheul, R., Bartak, A., & Widiger, T. (2007). Prevalence and construct validity of personality disorder not otherwise specified (PDNOS). Journal of Personality Disorders, 21, 359–370.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Verheul, R., Helene, A., Berghout, C. C., Dolan, C., Busschbach, J. J. V., van der Kroft, P. J. A., et al. (2008). Severity Indices of Personality Problems (SIPP-118): Development, factor structure, reliability, and validity. Psychological Assessment, 20, 23–34.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Washburn, J. J., McMahon, S. D., King, C. A., Reinecke, M. A., & Silver, C. (2004). Narcissistic features in young adolescents: Relations to aggression and internalizing symptoms. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 33, 247–260.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Chmielewski, M. (2008). Structures of personality and their relevance to psychopathology. II. Further articulation of a comprehensive unified trait structure. Journal of Personality, 76, 1545–1586.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Westen, D., & Heim, A. K. (2003). Disturbances of self and identity in personality disorders. In Leary, M. R. & Tangney, J. P. (Eds), Handbook of self and identity (pp. 643–664). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Weston, C. G., & Riolo, S. A. (2007). Childhood and adolescent precursors to adult personality disorders. Psychiatric Annals, 37, 114–120.Google Scholar
Whitbourne, S. K. (2005). Adult development & aging: Biopsychosocial perspectives (2nd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Widiger, T. A., & Clark, L. A. (2000). Toward DSM-V and the classification of psychopathology. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 946–963.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Widiger, T. A., & Simonsen, E. (2005). Alternative dimensional models of personality disorder: Finding a common ground. Journal of Personality Disorders, 19, 110–130.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Widiger, T. A., Simonsen, E., Sirovatka, P. J., & Regier, D. A. (Eds.). (2006). Advancing the research agenda for DSM-V: I. Dimensional models of personality disorder. Washington DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.Google Scholar
Widiger, T. A., Trull, T. J., Clarkin, J. F., Sanderson, C., & Costa, P. T. (2002). A description of the DSM-IV personality disorders with the five-factor model of personality. In Costa, P. T. & Widiger, T. A. (Eds.), Personality disorders and the five factor model of personality (2nd ed., pp. 89–99). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wolff, S. (1991). “Schizoid” personality in childhood and adult life III: The childhood picture. British Journal of Psychiatry, 159, 629–635.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wood, J. M., Garb, H. N., Nezworski, M. T., & Koren, D. (2007). The Shedler–Westen Assessment Procedure-200 as a basis for modifying DSM personality disorder categories. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 116, 823–836.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zanarini, M. C., Frankenburg, F. R., Hennen, J., Reich, D. B., & Silk, K. R. (2005). The McLean Study of Adult Development (MSAD): Overview and implications of the first sex years of prospective follow-up. Journal of Personality Disorders, 19, 505–523.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zelkowitz, P., Paris, J., Guzder, J., Feldman, R., Roy, C., & Rosval, L. (2007). A five-year follow-up of patients with borderline pathology of childhood. Journal of Personality Disorders, 21, 664–674.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zweig, R. A. (2008). Personality disorder in older adults: Assessment challenges and strategies. Research and Practice, 39, 298–305.Google Scholar