Skip to main content
Log in

Boomerang Effects in Response to Public Health Interventions: Some Unintended Consequences in the Alcoholic Beverage Market

  • Published:
Journal of Consumer Policy Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Some warnings and other public health interventions have been found to produce effects opposite to those intended. Researchers employing a variety of methods have observed these boomerang effects in connection with interventions in a number of different contexts. One possible explanation for such boomerang effects lies in the theory of psychological reactance, roughly defined as the state of being aroused in opposition to perceived threats to personal choice. In particular, some consumer reactions described in research on alcoholic beverage warnings, alcohol education efforts, and the minimum drinking age can be concisely explained in terms of psychological reactance. An obvious implication is that boomerang effects should be taken into account as one of the potential costs of launching a mass communication campaign or requiring a warning. In some cases (such as warnings about the health effects of alcohol abuse) there may be so little to be gained in terms of improved consumer knowledge that the potential cost of oppositional attitudes or behavior should receive substantial attention in the evaluation of proposed and current interventions.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

REFERENCES

  • Allen, D. N., Sprenkel, D. G., & Vitale, P. A. (1994). Reactance theory and alcohol consumption laws: Further confirmation among collegiate alcohol consumers. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 55, 34–40.

    Google Scholar 

  • Andrews, J. C. (1995). The effectiveness of alcohol warning labels: A review and extension. American Behavioral Scientist, 38, 622–632.

    Google Scholar 

  • Andrews, J. C., Netemeyer, R. G., & Durvasula, S. (1990). Believability and attitudes toward alcohol warning label information: The role of persuasive communications theory. Journal of Public Policy and Marketing, 9, 1–15.

    Google Scholar 

  • Andrews, J. C., Netemeyer, R. G., & Durvasula, S. (1991). Effects of consumption frequency on believability and attitudes toward alcohol warning labels. Journal of Consumer Affairs, 25, 323–338.

    Google Scholar 

  • Andrews, J. C., Netemeyer, R. G., & Durvasula, S. (1993). The role of cognitive responses as mediators of alcohol warning label effects. Journal of Public Policy and Marketing, 12, 57–68.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bangert-Drowns, R. L. (1988). The effects of school-based substance abuse education – A meta-analysis. Journal of Drug Education, 18, 243–264.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barnes, G. M. (1977). The development of adolescent drinking behavior: An evaluative review of the impact of the socialization process within the family. Adolescence, 12, 571–591.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bensley, L. S., & Wu, R. (1991). The role of psychological reactance in drinking following alcohol prevention messages. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 21, 1111–1124.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berberian, R. M., Gross, C., Lovejoy, J., & Paparella, S. (1976). The effectiveness of drug education programs: A critical review. Health Education Monographs, 4, 377–398.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berberian, R. M., Thompson, W. D., Kasl, S. V., Gould, L. C., & Kleber, H. D. (1976). The relationship between drug education programs in the greater New Haven schools and changes in drug use and drug-related beliefs and perceptions. Health Education Monographs, 4, 327–376.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blane, H. T., Hill, M. J., & Brown, E. (1968). Alienation, self-esteem and attitudes toward drinking in high-school students. Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 29, 350–354.

    Google Scholar 

  • Block, M. A. (1970). Alcohol and alcoholism: Drinking and dependence. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blood, D. J., & Snyder, L. B. (1993). Why warnings boomerang: The failure of the Surgeon General's alcohol warning to affect young adults. Paper presented at the International Communication Association Conference, Health Communication Division, Washington, DC.

  • Braucht, G. N., Brakarsh, D., Follingstad, D., & Berry, K. L. (1973). Deviant drug use in adolescence: A review of psychosocial correlates. Psychological Bulletin, 79, 92–106.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brehm, J. W. (1966). A theory of psychological reactance. New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brehm, J. W. (1972). Responses to loss of freedom: A theory of psychological reactance. Morristown, NJ: General Learning Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brehm, S. A., & Brehm, J. W. (1981). Psychological reactance: A theory of freedom and control. New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brockner, J., & Elkind, M. (1985). Self-esteem and reactance: Further evidence of attitudinal and motivational consequences. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 21, 346–361.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brockner, J., Gardner, M., Bierman, J., Mahan, T., Thomas, B., Weiss, W., et al. (1983). The roles of self-esteem and self-consciousness in the Wortman-Brehm model of reactance and learned helplessness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 199–209.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, S. A., Creamer, V. A., & Stetson, B. A. (1987). Adolescent alcohol expectancies in relation to personal and parental drinking patterns. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 96, 117–121.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, S. A., Goldman, M. S., Inn, A., & Anderson, L. R. (1980). Expectations of reinforcement from alcohol: Their domain and relation to drinking patterns. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 48, 419–426.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bushman, B. J. (1998). Effects of warning and information labels on consumption of full-fat, reduced-fat, and no-fat products. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83, 97–101.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bushman, B. J., & Stack, A. D. (1996). Forbidden fruit versus tainted fruit: Effects of warning labels on attraction to television violence. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 2, 207–226.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cahalan, D., Cisin, I., & Crossley, H. (1969). American drinking practices: A national study of drinking behavior and attitudes. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers Center of Alcohol Studies. Monograph No. 6.

    Google Scholar 

  • Camargo, C. A., Vranizan, K. M., Thoresen, C. E., & Wood, P. D. (1986). Type A behavior pattern and alcohol intake in middle-aged men. Psychosomatic Medicine, 48, 575–581.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carver, C. S. (1980). Perceived coercion, resistance to persuasion, and the Type A behavior pattern. Journal of Research in Personality, 14, 467–481.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cherulnik, P. D., & Citrin, M. M. (1974). Individual difference in psychological reactance: The interaction between locus of control and mode of elimination of freedom. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 29, 398–404.

    Google Scholar 

  • Christiansen, B.A., Goldman, M. S., & Inn, A. (1982). Development of alcohol-related expectancies in adolescents: Separating pharmacological from social-learning influences. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 50, 336–344.

    Google Scholar 

  • Christiansen, B. A., Smith, G. T., Roehling, P. V., & Goldman, M. S. (1989). Using alcohol expectancies to predict adolescent drinking behavior after one year. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 57, 93–99.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clee, M. A., & Wicklund, R. A. (1980). Consumer behavior and psychological reactance. Journal of Consumer Research, 6, 389–405.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J. (1995). Discussant's comments. Fifth Annual Marketing and Public Policy Conference, Atlanta, GA: Georgia State University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crowley, J. E. (1991). Educational status and drinking patterns: How representative are college students? Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 52, 10–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis, D., & Martin, H. J. (1978). When pleasure begets pleasure: Recipient responsiveness as a determinant of physical pleasuring between heterosexual dating couples and strangers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 767–777.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deardorff, C. M., Melges, F. T., Hout, C. N., & Savage, D. J. (1975). Situations related to drinking alcohol. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 36, 1184–1195.

    Google Scholar 

  • deTurck, M. A., & Goldhaber, G. M. (1991). A developmental analysis of warning signs: The case of familiarity and gender. Journal of Products Liability, 13, 65–78.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dowd, E. T., Milne, C. R., & Wise, S. L. (1991). The Therapeutic Reactance Scale: A measure of psychological reactance. Journal of Counseling and Development, 69, 541–545.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dowd, E. T., Wallbrown, F., Sanders, D., & Yesenosky, J. M. (1994). Psychological reactance and its relationship to normal personality variables. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 18, 601–612.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eagly, A. H., & Chaiken, S. (1993). The psychology of attitudes. Ft. Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

    Google Scholar 

  • Earleywine, M., Finn, P. R., & Martin, C. S. (1990). Personality risk and alcohol consumption: A latent variable analysis. Addictive Behaviors, 15, 183–187.

    Google Scholar 

  • Engs, R. C., & Hanson, D. J. (1988). University students' drinking patterns and problems: Examining the effects of raising the purchase age. Public Health Reports, 103, 667–673.

    Google Scholar 

  • Engs, R. C., & Hanson, D. J. (1989). Reactance theory: A test with collegiate drinking. Psychological Reports, 64, 1083–1086.

    Google Scholar 

  • Feingold, P. C., & Knapp, M. L. (1977). Anti-drug abuse commercials. Journal of Communication, 27, 20–28.

    Google Scholar 

  • Federal Alcohol Administration Act (1988). Public Law 100-690, 27USC213. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

    Google Scholar 

  • Finn, P., & Brown, J. (1981). Risks entailed in teenage intoxication as perceived by junior and senior high school students. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 10, 61–76.

    Google Scholar 

  • Folsom, A., Hughes, J. R., Buehler, J. F., Mittlemark, M. B., Jacobs, Jr., D. R., & Grimm, Jr., R. H. (1985). Do Type A men drink more frequently than Type B men? Findings in the Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial (MRFIT). Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 8, 227–235.

    Google Scholar 

  • Foxcroft, D. R., Lister-Sharp, D., & Lowe, G. (1997). Alcohol misuse prevention for young people: A systematic review reveals methodological concerns and lack of reliable evidence of effectiveness. Addiction, 92, 531–537.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gallup Organization (1986). National Adult Personal, n = 1559, October 27. Full Question ID: USGALLUP.1269.Q06b.

  • Gallup Organization (1990). National Adult Telephone, n = 1007, December. Full Question ID: USGALLUP.922023.R24.

  • Glass, D. C. (1977). Behavior patterns, stress, and coronary disease. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gonzalez, G. M. (1990). Effects of raising the drinking age and related campus initiatives on student alcohol consumption and alcohol-related problems. Journal of College Student Development, 31, 181–183.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goodstadt, M. S. (1980). Drug education – A turn on or a turn off? Journal of Drug Education, 10(2), 89–99.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goodwin, L. (1989). Explaining alcohol consumption and related experiences among fraternity and sorority members. Journal of College Student Development, 30, 448–458.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gordon, R. A., & Minor, S. W. (1992). Attitudes toward a change in the legal drinking age: Reactance versus compliance. Journal of College Student Development, 33, 171–176.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gorman, D. M. (1997).The failure of drug education. Public Interest, 129, 50–60.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grant, M. (Ed.) (1985). Alcohol policies. Copenhagen: WHO.

    Google Scholar 

  • Graves, K. L. (1993). An evaluation of the alcohol warning label: A comparison of the United States and Ontario, Canada in 1990 and 1991. Journal of Public Policy and Marketing, 12, 19–29.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenberg, B. S. (1964). On relating attitude change and information gain. Journal of Communication, 14, 157–171.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenfield, T. K., Graves, K. L., & Kaskutas, L. A. (1999). Long-term effects of alcohol warning labels: Findings from a comparison of the United States and Ontario, Canada. Psychology and Marketing, 16, 261–282.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenfield, T. K., & Kaskutas, L. A. (1993). Early impacts of alcoholic beverage warning labels: National study findings relevant to drinking and driving behavior. Safety Science, 16, 689–707.

    Google Scholar 

  • Guttman, N., Michelle Kegler, M., & McLeroy, K. R. (1996). Health promotion paradoxes, antinomies and conundrums. Health Education Research Theory and Practice, 11(1), i–xiii.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hadden, S. G. (1991). Regulating product risks through consumer information. Journal of Social Issues, 47, 93–105.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haemmerlie, F. M., Merz, C. J., & Nelson, S. B. (1992). College vs junior high school students' knowledge of alcohol as a teratogen. Psychological Reports, 71, 809–810.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haemmerlie, F. M., Montgomery, R. L., & Cowell, S. L. (1999). Alcohol abuse by university students and its relationship to sociomoral reasoning. Journal of Alcohol and Drug Education, 44(2), 29–43.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hauge, R., & Irgens-Jensen, O. (1990). The experiencing of positive consequences of drinking in four Scandinavian countries. British Journal of Addiction, 85, 645–653.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hilton, M. E. (1991), A response to BATF request for scientific information on alcoholic beverage warning labels: Summary of research findings. Rockville, MD: National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism: Prevention Research Branch.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hilton, M. E. (1993) An overview of recent findings on alcoholic beverage warning labels. Journal of Public Policy and Marketing, 12, 1–9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hilton, M. E., & Kaskutas, L. (1991), Public support for warning labels on alcoholic beverage containers. British Journal of Addiction, 86, 1323–1333.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hong, S.-M., Giannakopoulos, E., Laing, D., & Williams, N. A. (1994). Psychological reactance: Effects of age and gender. Journal of Social Psychology, 134, 223–228.

    Google Scholar 

  • Horst, D. P. (1988). Evaluation of the potential effectiveness of warning labels on alcoholic beverage containers. Palo Alto, CA: Failure Analysis Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hovland, C. I., Janis, I. L., & Kelley, H. H. (1953). Communication and persuasion. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hughes, S. P., & Dodder, R. A. (1986). Raising the legal minimum drinking age: Short-term effects with college student sample. Journal of Drug Issues, 16, 609–620.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hyland, M., & Birrell, J. (1979). Government health warnings and the boomerang effect. Psychological Reports, 44, 643–647.

    Google Scholar 

  • Iutcovich, J. M., & Iutcovich, M. (1982). Just for fun: Alcohol and the college student. Chemical Dependencies: Behavioral and Biomedical Issues, 4(3), 167–185.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jessor, R. (1987). Risky driving and adolescent problem behavior: An extension of problem-behavior theory. Alcohol, Drugs, and Driving, 3(3–4), 1–10.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jessor, R., & Jessor, S. L. (1972). Problem drinking in youth: Personality, social, and behavioral antecedents and correlates. In: M. E. Chafetz. Jr. (Ed.), Proceedings of the Second Annual Alcoholism Conference of the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, Part I: Psychological and Social Factors in Drinking, pp. 3–23.

  • Jessor, R., & Jessor, S. L. (1975). Adolescent development and the onset of drinking: A longitudinal study. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 36, 27–51.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jessor, R., & Jessor, S. L. (1977), Problem behavior and psychosocial development: A longitudinal study of youth. New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jessor, R., Young, H. B., Young, E. B., & Tesi, G. (1970). Perceived opportunity, alienation, and drinking behavior among Italian and American youth. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 15, 215–222.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, C. C., Hunter, S. M., Amos, C. I., Elder, T. S., & Berenson, G. S. (1989). Cigarette smoking, alcohol, and oral contraceptive use by Type A adolescent – The Bogalusa Heart Study. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 12, 13–24.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones, M. C. (1968). Personality correlates and antecedents of drinking patterns in adult males. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 32, 2–12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Joubert, C. E. (1990). Relationship among self-esteem, psychological reactance, and other personality variables. Psychological Reports, 66, 1147–1151.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kahneman, D., Knetsch, J. L., & Thaler, R. H. (1991). The endowment effect, loss aversion, and status quo bias. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 5(1), 193–206.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaskutas, L. A. (1993). Changes in public attitudes toward alcohol control policies since the warning label mandate of 1988. Journal of Marketing and Public Policy, 12, 30–37.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaskutas, L. A., & Greenfield, T. K. (1992). First effects of warning labels on alcoholic beverage containers. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 31, 1–14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kinder, B. N., Pape, N. E., & Walfish, S. (1980). Drug and alcohol education programs: A review of outcome studies. International Journal of the Addictions, 15, 1035–1054.

    Google Scholar 

  • Konovsky, M., & Wilsnack, S. C. (1982). Social drinking and self-esteem in married couples. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 43, 319–333.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krithers, D. P., & Gordon, R. A. (1992). DWI and the uniform national drinking age: A test of psychological reactance. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Midwestern Psychological Association, Chicago.

  • Landrine, H., Bardwell, S., & Dean, T. (1988). Gender expectations for alcohol use: A study of the significance of the masculine role. Sex Roles, 19, 703–712.

    Google Scholar 

  • Laughery, R. K., & Hammond, A. (1999). Overview. In: M. S. Wogalter, D. M. DeJoy, & K. R. Laughery (Eds.), Warnings and Risk Communication, pp. 3–14. Philadelphia, PA: Taylor and Francis.

    Google Scholar 

  • Laughery, R. K., Young, S. L., Vaubel, K. P., & Brelsford, Jr., J. W. (1993). The noticeability of warnings on alcoholic beverage containers. Journal of Public Policy and Marketing, 12, 38–56.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lehto, M. R., & Miller, J. M. (1986). Warnings: Fundamentals, design, and evaluation methodologies. Ann Arbor, MI: Fuller Technical Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leigh, B. C. (1987). Beliefs about the effects of alcohol on self and others. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 48, 467–475.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leventhal, H., & Mace, W. (1970). The effect of laughter on evaluation of a slapstick movie. Journal of Personality, 38, 16–30.

    Google Scholar 

  • MacKinnon, D. P., & Fenaughty, A. M. (1993). Substance use and memory for health warning labels. Health Psychology, 12, 147–150.

    Google Scholar 

  • MacKinnon, D. P., Nohre, L., Pentz, M. A., & Stacy, A. W. (2000). The alcohol warning and adolescents: 5-year effects. American Journal of Public Health, 90, 1589–1594.

    Google Scholar 

  • MacKinnon, D. P., Pentz, M. A., & Stacy, A. W. (1993). The alcohol warning label and adolescents: The first year. American Journal of Public Health, 83, 585–587.

    Google Scholar 

  • Magat, W. A., Viscusi, W. K., & Huber, J. (1988). Consumer processing of hazard warning information. Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, 1, 201–232.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marin, G. (1994). Self-reported awareness of the presence of product warning messages and signs by hispanics in San Francisco. Public Health Reports, 109, 275–283.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marlatt, G. A. (1976). Alcohol, stress, and cognitive control. In: I. G. Sarason & C. D. Spielberger (Eds.), Stress and anxiety, Vol. 3, pp. 271–296. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mason, T., Winniford, J., Myszka, M., & Thompson, R. (1987). Now that the law has changed: Assessing the impact of the 21 year old drinking age. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American College Personnel Association/National Association of Student Personnel Administrators. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 286 108.

  • Mazis, M. B., Morris, L. A., & Swasy, J. L. (1991). An evaluation of the alcohol warning label: Initial survey results. Journal of Public Policy and Marketing, 10, 229–241.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCarthy, R. L., Finnegan, J. P., Krumm-Scott, S., & McCarthy, G. E. (1984). Product information presentation, user behavior, and safety. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society, 28th Annual Meeting, pp. 81–85.

  • McClelland, D. C., Davis, W. N., Kalin, R., & Wanner, E. (1972). The drinking man. New York: Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meilman, P. W., Stone, J. E., Gaylor, M. S., & Turco, J. H. (1990). Alcohol consumption by college undergraduates: Current use and 10-year trends. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 51, 389–395.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mills, K. C., & McCarty, D. (1983). A data based alcohol abuse prevention program in a university setting. Journal of Alcohol and Drug Education, 28(2), 15–27.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moos, R. H., Moos, B. S., & Kulik, J. A. (1977). Behavioral and self-concept: Antecedents and correlates of college-student drinking patterns. International Journal of the Addictions, 12, 603–615.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mosher, J. F. (1977). The prohibition of youthful drinking: A need for reform. Contemporary Drug Problems, 6, 397–431.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nystrom, M. (1992). Positive and negative consequences of alcohol drinking among young university students in Finland. British Journal of Addiction, 87, 715–722.

    Google Scholar 

  • O'Malley, P. M., & Wagenaar, A. C. (1991). Effects of minimum drinking age laws on alcohol use, related behaviors and traffic crash involvement among American youth: 1976–1987. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 52, 478–491.

    Google Scholar 

  • Orford, J., Waller, S., & Peto, J. (1974). Drinking behavior and attitudes and their correlates among university students in England. Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 35, 1316–1374.

    Google Scholar 

  • Patterson, L. T., Hunnicutt, G. G., & Stutts, M. A. (1992). Young adults' perceptions of warnings and risks associated with alcohol consumption. Journal of Public Policy and Marketing, 11, 96–103.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perkins, H. W., & Berkowitz, A. D. (1989). Stability and contradiction in college students' drinking following a drinking-age law change. Journal of Alcohol and Drug Education, 35(1), 60–77.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peters, G. A. (1984). A challenge to the safety profession. Professional Safety, 29, 46–50.

    Google Scholar 

  • Prism Corporation and Opinion Research Corporation (1988). Final report of findings of research study of the public opinion concerning warning labels on containers of alcoholic beverages, Vols. I and II. Washington, DC: The United States Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms.

    Google Scholar 

  • Regan, J. W., & Brehm, J. W. (1972). Compliance in buying as a function of inducements that threaten freedom. In: L. Bickman & T. Henchy (Eds.), Beyond the laboratory: Field research in social psychology, pp. 269–274. New York: McGraw Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rhodewalt, F., & Comer, R. (1982). Coronary-prone behavior and reactance: The attractiveness of an eliminated choice. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 8, 152–158.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rhodewalt, F., & Davison, Jr., J. (1983). Reactance and the coronary-prone behavior pattern: The role of self-attribution in responses to reduced behavioral freedom. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44, 220–228.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rhodewalt, F., & Fairfield, M. (1988). Type A behavior and diabetic control: Implications of psychological reactance for health outcomes. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 18, 139–159.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rhodewalt, F., & Fairfield, M. (1990). An alternative approach to Type A behavior and health: Psychological reactance and medical noncompliance. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 5, 323–342.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rhodewalt, F., & Strube, M. J. (1985). A self-attribution-reactance model of recovery from injury in Type A individuals. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 14, 330–344.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rice, D. P., & Schoenfeld, L. S. (1975). Aversive conditioning and cognitive mediators with alcoholic respondents. British Journal of Addiction, 70, 165–174.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robinson, T. N., & Killen, J. D. (1997). Do cigarette warning labels reduce smoking? Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 151, 267–272.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rohsenow, D. J. (1983). Drinking habits and expectancies about alcohol's effects for self versus others. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 51, 752–756.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rotter, J. B. (1966). Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. Psychological Monographs, 80 (1, Whole No. 609).

  • Rundall, T. G., & Bruvold, W. H. (1988). A meta-analysis of school-based smoking and alcohol use prevention programs. Health Education Quarterly, 15, 317–334.

    Google Scholar 

  • Russell, J. A., & Mehrabian, A. (1975). The mediating role of emotions in alcohol use. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 36, 1508–1536.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scammon, D. L., Mayer, R. N., & Smith, K. R. (1991). Alcohol warnings: How do you know when you have had one too many? Journal of Public Policy and Marketing, 10, 214–228.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schall, M., Kemeny, A., & Maltzman, I. (1992). Factors associated with alcohol use in university students. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 53, 122–136.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sieber, M. F., & Angst, J. (1990). Alcohol, tobacco and cannabis: 12-year longitudinal associations with antecedent social context and personality. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 25, 281–292.

    Google Scholar 

  • Snyder, L. B., & Blood, D. J. (1992). Caution: Alcohol advertising and the Surgeon General's alcohol warnings may have adverse effects on young adults. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 20, 37–53.

    Google Scholar 

  • Southwick, L., Steele, C., Marlatt, A., & Lindell, M. (1981). Alcohol-related expectancies: defined by phase of intoxication and drinking experience. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 49, 713–721.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sowell, T. (1995). The vision of the anointed: Self-congratulations as a basis for social policy. New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steele, C. M., & Josephs, R. A. (1990). Alcohol myopia: Its prized and dangerous effects. American Psychologist, 45, 921–933.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stewart, D. W., & Martin, I. M. (1994). Intended and unintended consequences of warning messages: A review and synthesis of empirical research. Journal of Public Policy and Marketing, 13, 1–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Unger, J. B., Rohrbach, L. A., Howard, K. A., Cruz, T. B., Johnson, C. A., & Chen, X. (1999). Attitudes toward anti-tobacco policy among California youth: Associations with smoking status, psychosocial variables and advocacy actions. Health Education Research Theory and Practice, 14, 751–763.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vingilis, E., & Smart, R. G. (1981). Effects of raising the legal drinking age in Ontario. British Journal of Addiction, 76, 415–424.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vrugt, A. (1992). Preferential treatment of women and psychological reactance theory: An experiment. European Journal of Social Psychology, 22, 303–307.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wallack, L. M. (1981). Mass media campaigns: The odds against finding behavior change. Health Education Quarterly, 8(3), 209–260.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wechsler, H., & Isaac, N. (1992). “Binge” drinkers at Massachusetts colleges: Prevalence, drinking style, time trends, and associated problems. Journal of the American Medical Association, 267, 2929–2931.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wicklund, R. A. (1974). Freedom and reactance. Potomac, MD: Lawrence Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilde, G. J. S. (1993). Effects of mass media communications on health and safety habits: An overview of issues and evidence. Addiction, 88, 983–996.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, A. F. (1965). Self-concepts of college problem drinkers. Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 26, 586–594.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, A. F. (1966). Social drinking, anxiety, and depression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 3, 689–693.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, A. F. (1970). College problem drinkers: A personality profile. In: G. L. Maddox (Ed.), The domesticated drug: Drinking among collegians, pp. 343–360. New Haven, CT: College and University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, F. G., Kirkman-Liff, B. L., & Szivek, P. H. (1990). College student drinking behaviors before and after changes in state policy. Journal of Alcohol and Drug Education, 35(3), 12–25.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wogalter, M. S., DeJoy, D. M., & Laughery, K. R. (1999) Warnings and risk communication. Philadelphia, PA: Taylor and Francis.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wogalter, M. S., & Dingus, T. A. (1999). Methodological techniques for evaluating behavioral intentions and compliance. In: M. S. Wogalter, D. M. DeJoy, & K. R. Laughery (Eds.), Warnings and risk communications, pp. 53–81. Philadelphia, PA: Taylor and Francis.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wood, M. D., Nagoshi, C. T., & Dennis, D. A. (1992). Alcohol norms and expectations as predictors of alcohol use and problems in a college student sample. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 18, 461–476.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wright, R. A., & Brehm, S. S. (1982). Reactance as impression management: A critical review. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42, 608–618.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wright, R. A., Wadley, V. G., Danner, M., & Phillips, P. N. (1992). Persuasion, reactance, and judgments of interpersonal appeal. European Journal of Social Psychology, 22, 85–91.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yankofsky, L., Wilson, G. T., Adler, J. L., Hay, W. M., & Vrana, S. (1986). The negative effect of alcohol on self-evaluation and perception of negative interpersonal feedback. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 47, 26–33.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zimring, F., & Hawkins, G. (1971). The legal threat as an instrument of social change. Journal of Social Issues, 27(2), 33–48.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Ringold, D.J. Boomerang Effects in Response to Public Health Interventions: Some Unintended Consequences in the Alcoholic Beverage Market. Journal of Consumer Policy 25, 27–63 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1014588126336

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1014588126336

Keywords

Navigation