Abstract
Ethnic identity was conceptualized into three categories: (1) unexamined, (2) searching for identity, and (3) achieved ethnic identity. Analyses of data collected from 12,386 adolescents showed that ethnic identity is an important qualifier of the relationships between independent variables of ethnicity and gender, and dependent variables of global self-esteem, academic self-confidence, and purpose in life. Whites and Native Americans had lower ethnic identity, and Blacks and Hispanics had higher ethnic identity. Asians and repondents of mixed ethnicity had intermediate levels of ethnic identity. The greater the ethnic identity, the higher the self-esteem, purpose in life and self-confidence. This mechanism applies to ethnic minorities and to women among whom achieved ethnic identity may blunt the negative effects of social denigration and stereotyping, and it applies to whites, too. The paper argues that multiculturalism in the schools can increase ethnic identity.
Similar content being viewed by others
REFERENCES
Blash, R., and Unger, D. (1995). Self-concept of African-American male youth: Self-esteem and ethnic identity. J. Child Family Studies 4: 359–373.
Brookover, W., Beady, C., Flood, P., Schweitzer, J., and Wisenbaker, J. (1979). School Social Systems and Student Achievement. Praeger, New York.
Crumbaugh, J. (1968). Cross-validation of purpose-in-life test based on Frankl's concepts. J. Ind. Psychol. 24: 74–81.
Erikson, E. (1964). Insight and Responsibility. Norton, New York.
Erikson, E. (1968). Identity: Youth and Crisis. Norton, New York.
Isajiw, W. W., Sev'er, A., and Driedger, L. (1993). Ethnic identity and social mobility: A test of the ‘drawback model’. Can. J. Sociol. 18: 177–196.
Marcia, J. (1966). Development and validation of ego-identity status. J. Personal. Social Psychol. 3: 551–558.
Marcia, J. (1980). Identity in adolescence. In Adelson, J. (ed.), Handbook of Adolescent Psychology. Wiley, New York.
Martinez, R., and Dukes, R. L. (1991). Ethnic and gender differences in self esteem. Youth Soc. 22: 318–338.
Martinez, R., and Dukes, R. L. (1987). Race, gender and self esteem among youth. Hispanic J. Behav. Sci. 9: 427–443.
Marshall, S. (1995). Ethnic socialization of African American children: Implications for parenting, identity development, and academic achievement. J. Youth Adolesc. 24: 377–396.
Phinney, J. S. (1989). Stages of ethnic identity development in minority group adolescents. J. Early Adolesc. 9: 34–49.
Phinney, J. S. (1990). Ethnic identity in adolescents and adults: Review of research. Psychol. Bull. 108: 499–514.
Phinney, J. S. (1991). Ethnic identity and self-esteem: A review and integration. Hisp. J. Behav. Sci. 13: 193–208.
Phinney, J. S. (1992). The multigroup ethnic identity measure: A new scale for use with adolescents and young adults from diverse groups. J. Adoles. Res. 7: 156–176.
Phinney, J. S. (1993). A three-stage model of ethnic identity development in adolescence. In Bernal, M. E., and Knight, G. P. (eds.), Ethnic Identity: Formation and Transmission Among Hispanics and Other Minorities, New York Press, Albany.
Rosenberg, M. (1979). Conceiving the Self. Basic Books, New York.
Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the Adolescent Self-Image. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.
Silber, E., and Tippett J. (1965). Self-esteem: Clinical assessment and measurement validation. Psychol. Rep. 16: 1017–1071.
Tippett, J., and Silber J. (1965). Self-image stability: The problem of validation. Psychol. Rep. 17: 323–329.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Martinez, R.O., Dukes, R.L. The Effects of Ethnic Identity, Ethnicity, and Gender on Adolescent Well-Being. Journal of Youth and Adolescence 26, 503–516 (1997). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024525821078
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024525821078