Mädchen mit Störungen des Sozialverhaltens
Abstract
Während Studien zur Störung des Sozialverhaltens (Conduct Disorder; CD) in der Vergangenheit fast ausschließlich mit Jungen durchgeführt wurden, sind in den letzten Jahren betroffene Mädchen zunehmend in den Fokus des wissenschaftlichen Interesses gerückt. In dieser Übersicht werden die aktuellen Befunde zur Prävalenz und zu geschlechtsspezifischen Unterschieden hinsichtlich Symptomatik (einschließlich Subtypen aggressiven Verhaltens und psychopathischer Eigenschaften (callous-unemotional (cu)-traits)) dargestellt. Anhand von Befunden zum vegetativen und neuroendokrinen Stresssystem sowie neurokognitiven und genetischen Daten sowie Bildgebungsbefunden werden neurobiologische Differenzen und weitere Unterschiede im Hinblick auf den Einfluss von Umweltfaktoren aufgezeigt. Insgesamt zeigt sich eine große Überlappung der klinischen Symptomatik, von Persönlichkeitsmerkmalen und neurobiologischen Veränderungen bei Jungen und Mädchen mit CD. Größere systematische Untersuchungen zu Mädchen mit CD sind dringend notwendig und könnten zu einem besseren Verständnis dissozialer Entwicklung beitragen. Da Mädchen seltener eine CD-Symptomatik zeigen, könnten solche Studien z. B. helfen, Resilienzfaktoren zu identifizieren, die therapeutische Interventionen möglicher Weise optimieren könnten.
The last few years have seen much research on girls with conduct disorder (CD). This article summarizes the gender-specific data regarding prevalence, differences with respect to symptomatology (e.g., subtypes of aggression, callous-unemotional (cu)-traits), and it presents data on the autonomic and neuroendocrine stress system as well as genetic, neurocognitive, and neuroimaging data. Differences in the impact of environmental factors on boys and girls for the development of CD are discussed. Taken together, the data indicate that there is great overlap in symptomatology, personality traits, and neurobiological aberrations in girls and boys with CD. Since fewer girls than boys exhibit CD symptomatology, further investigations on CD in girls might help to identify resilience factors that could improve future therapeutic interventions.
Literatur
(2008). Cortisol and externalizing behaviour in children and adolescents: Mixed meta-analytic evidence for the inverse relation of basal cortisol and cortisol reactivity with externalizing behaviour. Developmental Psychobiology, 50, 427–450.
. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders – Fourth edition (DSM-IV-TR). Washington, DC: Autor.
(2001). The epidemiology of disorders of conduct: Nosological issues and comorbidity. In , Conduct disorders in childhood and adolescence (pp. 126–168). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
(1999). Comorbidity. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 40, 57–87.
(2001). Genetic correlation between the P300 event-related brain potential and the EEG power spectrum. Behavior Genetics, 31, 545–554.
(2009). Girls and offending: Patterns, perceptions and interventions. London: Youth Justice Board.
(2007). Gender differences in physical aggression: A prospective population-based survey of children before and after 2 years of age. Developmental Psychology, 43, 13–26.
(2009). Differentiating early-onset persistent versus childhood-limited conduct problem youth. American Journal of Psychiatry, 166, 900–908.
(2010). Co-occurring problems of early onset persistent, childhood limited, and adolescent onset conduct problem youth. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51, 1217–26.
(2008). Sex differences in autonomic correlates of conduct problems and aggression. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 47, 788–796.
(2009). The Role of Biomarkers and Endophenotypes in prevention and treatment of psychopathological disorders. Biomarkers in Medicine, 3, 1–3.
(2011). Mean girls and bad boys: Recent research on gender differences in conduct disorder. Aggression and Violent Behaviour, 16, 503–511.
(1993). Aggression: Its causes, consequences and control. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
(2005). The psychopath: Emotion and the brain. Oxford: Blackwell.
(2006). The development of psychopathy. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47, 262–275.
(2013). Motor, emotional, and cognitive empathy in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder and conduct disorder. Journal of abnormal child psychology, 41, 425–443.
(2010). Exogenous cortisol enhances aggressive behavior in females, but not in males. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 35, 1034–1044.
(1999). Theory of mind and emotion-recognition functioning in autistic spectrum disorders and in psychiatric control and normal children. Development and Psychopathology, 11, 39–58.
(2012). Pathways from harsh parenting to adolescent antisocial behaviour: A multidomain test of gender moderation. Developmental Psychopathology, 24, 857–870.
(2006). Timing of menarche and the origins of conduct disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 63, 890–896.
(2006). Maternal care associated with methylation of the estrogen receptor-alpha1b promoter and estrogen receptor-alpha expression in the medial preoptic area of female offspring. Endocrinology, 147, 2909–2015.
(2004). Time trends in adolescent mental health. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 1350–1362.
(2003). Gender differences in reactive and proactive aggression. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 33, 279–294.
(1996). The Great Smoky Mountains Study of Youth. Goals, design, methods and the prevalence of DSM-II-R disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 5, 65–78.
(2003). Prevalence and development of psychiatric disorders in childhood and adolescence. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60, 837–844.
(2007). Pubertal maturation and the development of alcohol use and abuse. Drug and Alcohol Dependance, 88, 50–59.
(2006). A longitudinal study of relational aggression, physical aggression, and children’s social-psychological adjustment. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 34, 131–142.
(2003). The development of psychopathology in females and males: Current progress and future challenges. Development and Psychopathology, 15, 719–742.
(2006). Attention to the eyes and fear-recognition deficits in child psychopathy. British Journal of Psychiatry, 189, 280–281.
(2011). Small, but not perfectly formed: decreased white matter concentration in boys with psychopathic tendencies. Molekular Psychiatry, 16, 476–477.
(2009). Atypical empathic responses in adolescents with aggressive conduct disorder: A functional MRI investigation. Biological Psychology, 80, 203–211.
(2012). Concurrent attenuated reactivity of alpha-amylase and cortisol is related to disruptive behaviour in male adolescents. Hormones and Behavior, 62, 77–85.
(1987). Social-information-processing factors in reactive and proactive aggression in children’s peer groups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 1146–1158.
(2010). Social communication deficits in disruptive primary-school children. British Journal of Psychiatry, 196, 282–299.
(2009). Salivary gonadal and adrenal hormone differences in boys and girls with and without disruptive behavior disorders: Contextual variants. Biological Psychology, 81, 31–9.
(2006). Common emotional and behavioral disorders in preschool children: Presentation, nosology, and epidemiology. Journal of Child Psychology, 47, 313–337.
(2006). Callous-unemotional traits in a community sample of adolescents. Assessment, 13, 454–469.
(2008). Cortisol diurnal rhythm and stress reactivity in male adolescents with early-onset or adolescence-onset conduct disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 64, 599–606.
(2008). Fear conditioning and affective modulation of the startle reflex in male adolescents with early-onset or adolescence-onset conduct disorder and healthy control subjects. Biological psychiatry, 63, 279–285.
(2009). Deficits in facial expression recognition in male adolescents with early-onset or adolescence-onset conduct disorder. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 50, 627–636.
(2010). Facial expression recognition, fear conditioning, and startle modulation in female subjects with conduct disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 68, 272–279.
(2011). Brain structure abnormalities in early-onset and adolescent-onset conduct disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 168, 624–633.
(2013). Brain structure abnormalities in adolescent girls with conduct disorder. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54, 86–95.
(2013). Research review: Evaluating and reformulating the developmental taxonomic theory of antisocial behaviour. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, [Epub ahead of print]. doi 10.1111/jcpp.12102
(2008). Mental disorders among adolescents in juvenile detention and correctional facilities: A systematic review and meta-regression analysis of 25 surveys. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 47, 1010–1019.
. (2006). Uniform crime reporting program. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.
(2010). Etiology of different developmental trajectories of callous-unemotional traits. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 49, 656–664.
(2009). Cortisol awakening response in healthy children and children with ADHD: Impact of comorbid disorders and psychosocial risk factors. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 34, 1019–1028.
(2006). Current perspectives on conduct disorder. Current Psychiatry Reports, 8, 59–72.
(2006). Psychopathy and developmental pathways to antisocial behavior in youth. New York: Guilford.
(2010). A proposal to the DSM-V Childhood Disorder and the ADHD and Disruptive Behavior Disorders Work groups to include a specifier to the diagnosis of conduct disorder based on the presence of callous-unemotional traits. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.
(2012). Current issues in the diagnosis of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, and conduct disorder. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 8, 77–107.
(1994). Psychopathy and conduct problems in children. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 103, 700–707.
(2008). Research review: the importance of callous-unemotional traits for developmental models of aggressive and antisocial behaviour. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49, 359–375.
(2009). Cross-cultural generalizability of the Reactive-Proactive Aggression Questionnaire (RPQ). Journal of Personality Assessment, 91, 473–479.
(1997). Is psychopathology associated with the timing of pubertal development? Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 1768–1776.
(2007). Does empathy predict adolescents’ bullying and defending behavior? Aggressive Behavior, 33 (December 2005), 467–476.
(2011). The role of child and parental mentalizing for the development of conduct problems over time. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 20, 291–300.
(2002). Understanding the relations among gender, disinhibition, and disruptive behavior in adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111, 659–664.
(2005). The beginnings of aggression in infancy. In , Developmental origins of aggression (pp. 107–132). New York: Guilford.
(2007). The gradual emergency of sex differences in aggression: Alternative hypotheses. Psychological Medicine, 37, 1527–1537.
(2008). Emotional processing in male adolescents with childhood-onset conduct disorder. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49, 781–791.
(2007). Similar autonomic responsivity in boys with conduct disorder and their fathers. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 465, 535–544.
(2003). Conduct and oppositional defiant disorders. In , Child psychopathology (pp. 144–198). New York: Guilford.
(2008). Reciprocal influences between girls’ conduct problems and depression, and parental punishment and warmth: A 6-year prospective analysis. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, 663–677.
(2011). Investigation of cool and hot executive function in ODD/CD independently of ADHD. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 52, 1035–1043.
(2010). Reactive and Proactive Aggression in childhood and adolescence: Precursors, outcomes, processes, experiences, and measurement. Journal of Personality, 78, 96–118.
(2008). Morphometric brain abnormalities in boys with conduct disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 47, 540–547.
(2012). Gender differences in comorbidity of conduct disorder among adolescents in Northern Finland. International Journal of Circumpolar Health, 71, 1–8.
(2006). Development and validation of the Basic Empathy Scale. Journal of adolescence, 29, 589–611.
(2009). Amygdala hypoactivity to fearful faces in boys with conduct problems and callous-unemotional traits. American Journal of Psychiatry, 166, 95–102.
(1999). Conduct disorder in girls: A review of the literature. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 2, 3–19.
(2010). Age of onset, symptom threshold, and expansion of the nosology of conduct disorder for girls. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 119, 689–698.
(2008). Should relational aggression be included in the DSM-IV nosology for disruptive behavior disorders? Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 47, 86–93.
(2012). Familial influences on conduct disorder reflect two genetic factors and one shared environmental factor. Archives of General Psychiatry, 70, 1–9.
(1999). Developmental epidemiology of the disruptive behavior disorders. In , Handbook of disruptive behavior disorders (pp. 23–48). New York: Kluwer Academic /Plenum.
(2011). Higher-order genetic and environmental structure of prevalent forms of child and adolescent psychopathology. Archives of General Psychiatry, 68, 181–189.
(2005). A developmental model of the propensity to offending during childhood and adolescence. In , Advances in criminology theory, 13 (pp. 15–50). Piscataway, NJ: Transaction Publishers.
(2012). Annual research review: Phenotypic and causal structure of conduct disorder in the broader context of prevalent forms of psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 53, 536–557.
(2012). Disruptive behaviour disorders: A systematic review of environmental antenatal and early years risk factors. Child: Care, Health and Development, 38, 611–628.
(2009). Trends in the gender gap in violent offending: New evidence from the National Crime Victimization Survey. Criminology, 47, 361–399.
(2007). Age differences in the prevalence of physical aggression among 5–11-year-old Canadian boys and girls. Aggressive Behavior, 33, 26–37.
(1994). Interaction between conduct disorder and its comorbid conditions: Effects of age and gender. Clinical Psychology Review, 14, 497–523.
(2009). Hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis functioning in reactive and proactive aggressions in children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 37, 169–182.
(2011). Callous and unemotional traits and social cognitive processes in a sample of community-based aggressive youth. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 55, 1291–307.
(2004). Psychophysiology of aggression, psychopathy, and conduct problems: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 130, 531–552.
(1993). Explaining the relation between IQ and delinquency: Class, race, test motivation, school failure, or self-control? Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 102, 187–196.
(2010). Evidence for deficits in reward responsivity in antisocial youth with callous-unemotional traits. Personality Disorders, 1, 218–29.
(2005). The association of psychopathic traits with aggression and delinquency in nonreferred boys and girls. Behavioral Science and the Law, 23, 803–817.
(2011). Reduced amygdala-orbitofrontal connectivity during moral judgments in youths with disruptive behavior disorders and psychopathic traits. Psychiatry Research, 194, 279–286.
(2008). Reduced amygdala responses to fearful expressions in children and adolescents with callous-unemotional traits and disruptive behaviour disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 165, 712–720.
(2004). Conduct disorder and oppositional defiant disorder in a national sample: Developmental epidemiology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 609–621.
(2004). Gender differences in childhood onset conduct disorder. Developmental Psychopathology, 16, 179–192.
(1988). The relation of empathy to aggressive and externalizing/antisocial behavior. Psychological Bulletin, 103, 324–44.
(2009). Peer deviance, parenting and disruptive behaviour among young girls. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 37, 139–152.
(2008). Research review: DSM-V conduct disorder: research needs for an evidence base. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49, 3–36.
(2001). Sex differences in antisocial behavior. Conduct disorder, delinquency and violence in the Dunedin longitudinal study. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
(2011). Empathy and bullying: Exploring the influence of callous-unemotional traits. Child psychiatry and human development, 42, 183–196.
(2007). Prenatal smoking exposure, low birth weight and disruptive behaviour disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 46, 362–369.
(2006). Prevalence, subtypes, and correlates of DSM-IV Conduct Disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Psychological Medicine, 36, 699–710.
(2004). Heart rate level and antisocial behaviour in children and adolescents: A meta-analysis. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 43, 154–162.
(2004). Gender differences in preschool aggression during free play and structured interactions: An observational study. Social Development, 13, 255–277.
(2008). Neuropsychological function in adolescent girls with conduct disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 47, 416–25.
(2001). Decreased cortisol levels in adolescent girls with conduct disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 58, 297–302.
(2008). Conduct disorder in girls: Neighbourhoods, family characteristics, and parenting behaviors. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 2, 28.
(2012). Longitudinal patterns of autonomic nervous system responding to emotion evocation among children with conduct problems and/or depression. Developmental Psychobiology, Jul 23, [Epub ahead of print]. doi 10.1002/dev.21065
(2003). Callous/unemotional traits and social-cognitive processes in adjudicated youths. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 42, 364–71.
(2012). The clinical utility of the proposed DSM-5 callous-unemotional subtype of conduct disorder in young girls. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 51, 62–73e4.
(2010). Neural abnormalities in early-onset and adolescence-onset conduct disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 67, 729–738.
(2007). The relation of psychopathy to concurrent aggression and antisocial behavior in high-risk adolescent girls and boys. Behavioral Science and the Law, 25, 21–41.
(2007). The relation of psychopathy to concurrent aggression and antisocial behavior in high-risk adolescent girls and boys. Behavioral Science and the Law, 41 (September 2006), 21–41.
(1986). Cognitive social learning mediators of aggression. Child Development, 57, 700–11.
(2007). The diurnal cortisol cycle in delinquent male adolescents and normal controls. Neuropsychopharmacology, 32, 1622–1628.
(2006). Will future forensic assessment be neurobiologic? Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 15, 429–444, ix.
(2012). Comorbidity of conduct disorder symptoms and internalising problems in children: Investigating a community and a clinical sample. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 21, 31–38.
. (2009). Aggressive girls: Overview paper. Retrieved from www.phac-aspc.gc.ca
(2008). Prevalence of mental health problems among children and adolescents in Germany: Results of the BELLA study within the National Health Interview and Examination Survey. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 17, 22–33.
(2001). Natural course of alcohol use disorders from adolescence to young adulthood. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 83–90.
(2011). «Cool» inferior frontostriatal dysfunction in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder versus «hot» ventromedial orbitofrontal-limbic dysfunction in conduct disorder: A review. Biological Psychiatry, 69, e69–e87.
(2012). Neuroanatomical correlates of heterotypic comorbidity in externalizing male adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 41, 346–352.
(2010). Being hot-tempered: Autonomic, emotional, and behavioural distinctions between childhood reactive and proactive aggressions. Biological Psychology, 84, 488–496.
(2001). Financial costs of social exclusion: Follow-up study of antisocial children into adulthood. British Medical Journal, 28, 191–194.
(2012). Neural responses to affective and cognitive theory of mind in children with conduct problems and varying levels of callous-unemotional traits. Archives of General Psychiatry, 69, 814–822.
(2009). The relationship between attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, conduct disorder, and psychopathy in adolescent male and female detainees. Behavioral Science and the Law, 27, 577–598.
(2012). Störungen des Sozialverhaltens: Sind neue Erklärungsansätze eine Grundlage für eine evidenzbasierte Klassifikation und Behandlung? Zeitschrift für Kinder- und Jugendpsychiatrie und Psychotherapie, 40, 7–17.
(2011). Cortisol reactivity in boys with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and disruptive behaviour problems: The impact of callous unemotional traits. Psychiatry Research, 187, 204–209.
(2007). Reduced anterior cingulate activation in aggressive children and adolescents during affective stimulation: Association with temperament traits. Journal of Psychiatry Research, 41, 410–417.
(2011). Are cyberbullies less empathic? Adolescents’ cyberbullying behavior and empathic responsiveness. Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking, 14, 643–8.
(2011). Psychopathology, trauma and delinquency: subtypes of aggression and their relevance for understanding young offenders. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Mental Health, 5, 21.
(2005). Abnormal neural responses to emotional visual stimuli in adolescents with conduct disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 57, 7–15.
(2007). A structural neural deficit in adolescents with conduct disorder and its association with lack of empathy. Neuroimage, 37, 335–342.
(2002). Psychiatric disorders in youth in juvenile detention. Archives of General Psychiatry, 59, 1133–1143.
. (2001). Youth violence: A report of the Surgeon General. Washington, DC: Autor.
(2005). Indirect aggression among humans: social construct or evolutionary adaptation? In , Developmental origins of aggression (pp. 158–177). New York: Guilford.
(2004). Cortisol and treatment effect in children with disruptive behaviour disorder: A preliminary study. American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 43, 1011–1018.
(2008). How can the study of biological processes help design new interventions for children with severe antisocial behaviour? Developmental Psychopathology, 20, 941–973.
(2012). Antisocial behaviour in children with and without callous-unemotional traits. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 105, 195–200.
(2008). Structural and functional MRI-findings in children and adolescents with antisocial behavior. Behavioral Science and the Law, 26, 99–111.
(2006). Bildgebungsbefunde bei Kindern und Jugendlichen mit ADHS, Tic-Störungen und Zwangserkrankungen. Zeitschrift für Kinder- und Jugendpsychiatrie und Psychotherapie, 34, 343–55.
(2013). Reduced cortisol in boys with early-onset conduct disorder and callous-unemotional traits. Biomed Research International, Epub 2013 Jun 11. doi 10.1155/2013/349530.
(2005). Gender differences in the relationship between young children’s peer-related social competence and individual differences in theory of mind. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 166, 297–312.
(2005). Gender differences in psychiatric disorders at juvenile probation intake. American Journal of Public Health, 95, 131–137.
(2011). Prevalence of psychiatric disorders in preschoolers. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 53, 695–705.
(1996). DSM-III-R and DSM-III criteria for conduct disorder in preadolescent girls: Specific but intensive. Journal of the American Academy Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 461–470.
