Recommendations of the German Central Committee against Tuberculosis (DZK) and the German Respiratory Society (DGP) for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Non-tuberculous Mycobacterioses

 

 Permissions and Reprints

Abstract

Non-tuberculous mycobacterioses comprise a group of diseases caused by mycobacteria which do not belong to the Mycobacterium (M.) tuberculosis-complex and are not ascribed to M. leprae. These mycobacteria are characterized by a broad variety as to environmental distribution and adaptation. Some of the species may cause specific diseases, especially in patients with underlying immunosuppressive diseases, chronic pulmonary diseases or genetic predisposition, respectively. Worldwide, a rising prevalence and significance of non-tuberculous mycobacterioses is recognized. The present recommendations summarise current aspects of epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical aspects, diagnostics – especially microbiological methods including susceptibility testing –, and specific treatment for the most relevant species. Diagnosis and treatment of non-tuberculous mycobacterioses during childhood and in HIV-infected individuals are described in separate chapters.

Zusammenfassung

Die nichttuberkulösen Mykobakteriosen umfassen eine Gruppe von Erkrankungen, die von Mykobakterien verursacht werden, die nicht dem Mycobacterium (M.) tuberculosis-Komplex und nicht M. leprae zugerechnet werden und durch eine breite Vielfalt in Hinsicht auf ihr Vorkommen und ihre Anpassungen an spezifische Umweltbedingungen charakterisiert sind. Einige Spezies können definierte Krankheitsbilder insbesondere bei Patienten mit systemischer Immunsuppression, vorbestehenden Lungenerkrankungen oder genetisch bedingter erhöhter Empfänglichkeit hervorrufen. Weltweit wird eine Zunahme der Prävalenz und der Bedeutung dieser Erregergruppe beobachtet. Die vorliegenden Empfehlungen fassen aktuelle Aspekte der Epidemiologie, der Pathogenese, Klinik, Diagnostik einschließlich mikrobiologischer Diagnostik und Resistenztestung sowie der speziesabhängigen Therapie bei nicht-tuberkulösen Mykobakteriosen zusammen. Außerdem werden die besonderen Aspekte der Diagnostik und Therapie im Kindesalter und bei HIV-infizierten Patienten dargestellt.

^* Overall responsibility

^** Responsible for individual chapter

• References

• 1 Griffith DE, Aksamit T, Brown-Elliott BA et al. An Official ATS/IDSA Statement: Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention of Nontuberculous Mycobacterial Diseases. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2007; 175: 367-416
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 2 Van Ingen J, Wagner D. Epidemiology of nontuberculous mycobacterial disease in Germany and worldwide. Pneumol 2011; 396-403
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 3 Kendall BA, Winthrop KL. Update on the epidemiology of pulmonary nontuberculous mycobacterial infections. Semin Respir Crit Care Med 2013; 34: 87-94
  Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 4 American Thoracic Society. Mycobacterioses and the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Joint Position Paper of the American Thoracic Society and the Centers for Disease Control. Am Rev Respir Dis 1987; 136: 492-496
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 5 Radenbach KL, Loddenkemper R. Zunehmende Bedeutung der Lungenkrankheiten durch sogenannte atypische Mykobakterien. Öffentl Ges-Wes 1985; 47: 459-462
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 6 Schütt-Gerowitt H. On the development of mycobacterial infections. II. Changing mycobacterial infection spectrum in the Cologne area 1983–1993. Zent Bakteriol 1985; 225-238
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 7 Schönfeld N, Schaberg T, Loddenkemper R. Neue Entwicklungen bei nicht-tuberkulösen Mykobakteriosen. Teil 1: Erkrankungen bei Patienten ohne HIV-Infektion. Pneumologie 1996; 313-322
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 8 Falkinham JO. Nontuberculous mycobacteria in the environment. Clin Chest Med 2002; 23: 529-551
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 9 Adjemian J, Olivier KN, Seitz AE et al. Prevalence of nontuberculous mycobacterial lung disease in U.S. Medicare beneficiaries. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2012; 185: 881-886
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 10 Adjemian J, Olivier KN, Seitz AE et al. Spatial clusters of nontuberculous mycobacterial lung disease in the United States. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2012; 186: 553-558
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 11 Schulze-Röbbecke R, Janning B, Fischeder R. Occurrence of mycobacteria in biofilm samples. Tuber Lung Dis 1992; 73: 141-144
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 12 Leite CQ, Anno IS, Leite SR et al. Isolation and identification of mycobacteria from livestock specimens and milk obtained in Brazil. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2003; 98: 319-323
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 13 Jordão Jr CM, Lopes FCM, David S et al. Detection of nontuberculous mycobacteria from water buffalo raw milk in Brazil. Food Microbiol 2009; 26: 658-661
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 14 Eltholth MM, Marsh VR, Van Winden S et al. Contamination of food products with Mycobacterium avium paratuberculosis: a systematic review. J Appl Microbiol 2009; 107: 1061-1071
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 15 Shankar H, Singh SV, Singh PK et al. Presence, characterization, and genotype profiles of Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis from unpasteurized individual and pooled milk, commercial pasteurized milk, and milk products in India by culture, PCR, and PCR-REA methods. Int J Infect Dis 2010; 14: e121-126
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 16 Daley CL, Griffith DE. Pulmonary non-tuberculous mycobacterial infections. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2010; 14: 665-671
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 17 Marras TK, Wallace RJ, Koth LL et al. Hypersensitivity pneumonitis reaction to Mycobacterium avium in household water. Chest 2005; 127: 664-671
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 18 Hanak V, Golbin JM, Ryu JH. Causes and presenting features in 85 consecutive patients with hypersensitivity pneumonitis. Mayo Clin Proc 2007; 82: 812-816
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 19 Hartman TE, Jensen E, Tazelaar HD et al. CT findings of granulomatous pneumonitis secondary to Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare inhalation: “hot tub lung”. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2007; 188: 1050-1053
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 20 Tillie-Leblond I, Grenouillet F, Reboux G et al. Hypersensitivity pneumonitis and metalworking fluids contaminated by mycobacteria. Eur Respir J 2011; 37: 640-647
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 21 Marras TK, Chedore P, Ying AM et al. Isolation prevalence of pulmonary non tuberculous mycobacteria in Ontario, 1997 – 2003. Thorax 2007; 62: 661-666
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 22 Prevots DR, Shaw PA, Strickland D et al. Nontuberculous Mycobacterial Lung Disease Prevalence at Four Integrated Health Care Delivery Systems. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2010; 182: 970-976
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 23 Winthrop KL, McNelley E, Kendall B et al. Pulmonary nontuberculous mycobacterial disease prevalence and clinical features: an emerging public health disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2010; 182: 977-982
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 24 Thomson RM. NTM working group at Queensland TB Control Centre, Queensland Mycobacterial Reference Laboratory. Changing epidemiology of pulmonary nontuberculous mycobacteria infections. Emerg Infect Dis 2010; 16: 1576-1583
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 25 Lai CC, Tan CK, Chou CH et al. Increasing incidence of nontuberculous mycobacteria, Taiwan, 2000 – 2008. Emerg Infect Dis 2010; 16: 294-296
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 26 Moore JE, Kruijshaar ME, Ormerod LP et al. Increasing reports of non-tuberculous mycobacteria in England, Wales and Northern Ireland, 1995 – 2006. BMC Public Health 2010; 10: 612
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 27 van Ingen J, Bendien SA, de Lange WCM et al. Clinical relevance of non-tuberculous mycobacteria isolated in the Nijmegen-Arnhem region, The Netherlands. Thorax 2009; 64: 502-506
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 28 van Ingen J, Hoefsloot W, Dekhuijzen PNR et al. The changing pattern of clinical Mycobacterium avium isolation in the Netherlands. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2010; 14: 1176-1180
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 29 Andréjak C, Thomsen VØ, Johansen IS et al. Nontuberculous pulmonary mycobacteriosis in Denmark: incidence and prognostic factors. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2010; 181: 514-521
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 30 Jankovic M, Samarzija M, Sabol I et al. Geographical distribution and clinical relevance of non-tuberculous mycobacteria in Croatia. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2013; 17: 836-841
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 31 Koh WJ. Epidemiology of pulmonary non-tuberculous mycobacterial infections: need to identify environmental sources. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2013; 17: 713
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 32 Jones D, Havlir DV. Nontuberculous mycobacteria in the HIV infected patient. Clin Chest Med 2002; 23: 665-674
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 33 Henry MT, Inamdar L, O’Riordain D et al. Nontuberculous mycobacteria in non-HIV patients: epidemiology, treatment and response. Eur Respir J 2004; 23: 741-746
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 34 Schönfeld N. The mycobacterial mystery. Eur Respir J 2006; 28: 1076-1078
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 35 Behr MA, Falkinham JO. Molecular epidemiology of nontuberculous mycobacteria. Future Microbiol 2009; 4: 1009-1020
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 36 van Soolingen D, van Ingen J. On the road to unravelling the aetiology of non-tuberculous mycobacterial disease. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2012; 16: 1279
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 37 Simons S, van Ingen J, Hsueh P-R et al. Nontuberculous mycobacteria in respiratory tract infections, eastern Asia. Emerg Infect Dis 2011; 17: 343-349
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 38 Hoefsloot W, van Ingen J, Andrejak C et al. The geographic diversity of nontuberculous mycobacteria isolated from pulmonary samples: an NTM-NET collaborative study. Eur Respir J 2013; 42: 1604-1613
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 39 Wolinsky E. Nontuberculous mycobacteria and associated diseases. Am Rev Respir Dis 1979; 119: 107-159
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 40 Radenbach K. Diagnostische und therapeutische Fortschritte bei nichttuberkulösen Mykobakterien. Prax Klin Pneumol 1985; 39: 43-49
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 41 Billinger ME, Olivier KN, Viboud C et al. Nontuberculous mycobacteria-associated lung disease in hospitalized persons, United States, 1998 – 2005. Emerg Infect Dis 2009; 15: 1562-1569
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 42 Iseman MD, Marras TK. The importance of nontuberculous mycobacterial lung disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2008; 178: 999-1000
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 43 Szabó I, Kiss KK, Várnai I et al. Epidemic pulmonary infection associated with Mycobacterium xenopi indigenous in sewage-sludge. Acta Microbiol Acad Sci Hung 1982; 29: 263-266
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 44 Bryant JM, Grogono DM, Greaves D et al. Whole-genome sequencing to identify transmission of Mycobacterium abscessus between patients with cystic fibrosis: a retrospective cohort study. Lancet 2013; 381: 1551-1560
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 45 Matthiessen W, Schmidt C, Rüsch-Gerdes S et al. [Significance of local and general risk factors for the pathogenesis of pulmonary, non-tuberculous mycobacteriosis in non-AIDS patients]. Pneumologie 2010; 64: 281-290
  Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 46 Braun E, Sprecher H, Davidson S et al. Epidemiology and clinical significance of non-tuberculous mycobacteria isolated from pulmonary specimens. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2013; 17: 96-99
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 47 Sexton P, Harrison AC. Susceptibility to nontuberculous mycobacterial lung disease. Eur Respir J 2008; 31: 1322-1333
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 48 Chan ED, Iseman MD. Underlying host risk factors for nontuberculous mycobacterial lung disease. Semin Respir Crit Care Med 2013; 34: 110-123
  Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 49 Prince DS, Peterson DD, Steiner RM et al. Infection with Mycobacterium avium complex in patients without predisposing conditions. N Engl J Med 1989; 321: 863-868
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 50 Kartalija M, Ovrutsky AR, Bryan CL et al. Patients with nontuberculous mycobacterial lung disease exhibit unique body and immune phenotypes. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2013; 187: 197-205
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 51 Fowler CJ, Olivier KN, Leung JM et al. Abnormal nasal nitric oxide production, ciliary beat frequency, and Toll-like receptor response in pulmonary nontuberculous mycobacterial disease epithelium. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2013; 187: 1374-1381
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 52 Vesenbeckh S, Wagner S, Mauch H et al. [Pathogenicity of Mycobacterium kansasii]. Pneumologie 2014; 68: 526-531
  Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 53 Witty LA, Tapson VF, Piantadosi CA. Isolation of mycobacteria in patients with pulmonary alveolar proteinosis. Medicine (Baltimore) 1994; 73: 103-109
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 54 Fritscher LG, Marras TK, Bradi AC et al. Nontuberculous mycobacterial infection as a cause of difficult-to-control asthma: a case-control study. Chest 2011; 139: 23-27
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 55 Schönfeld N, Matthiessen W, Grassot A. Komplikationen der pulmonalen Beteiligung beim M. Bechterew. Aktuelle Radiol 1991; 1: 249-252
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 56 Kim RD, Greenberg DE, Ehrmantraut ME et al. Pulmonary nontuberculous mycobacterial disease: prospective study of a distinct preexisting syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2008; 178: 1066-1074
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 57 Andréjak C, Nielsen R, Thomsen VØ et al. Chronic respiratory disease, inhaled corticosteroids and risk of non-tuberculous mycobacteriosis. Thorax 2013; 68: 256-262
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 58 Reich JM, Johnson RE. Mycobacterium avium complex pulmonary disease presenting as an isolated lingular or middle lobe pattern. The Lady Windermere syndrome. Chest 1992; 101: 1605-1609
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 59 Yu JA, Pomerantz M, Bishop A et al. Lady Windermere revisited: treatment with thoracoscopic lobectomy/segmentectomy for right middle lobe and lingular bronchiectasis associated with non-tuberculous mycobacterial disease. Eur J Cardio-Thorac Surg 2011; 40: 671-675
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 60 Koh W-J, Lee JH, Kwon YS et al. Prevalence of gastroesophageal reflux disease in patients with nontuberculous mycobacterial lung disease. Chest 2007; 131: 1825-1830
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 61 Forschbach G. [Non-tuberculous infections caused by Mycobacteria]. Internist 1975; 16: 393-400
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 62 Olivier KN, Weber DJ, Wallace RJ et al. Nontuberculous mycobacteria. I: multicenter prevalence study in cystic fibrosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2003; 167: 828-834
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 63 Roux A-L, Catherinot E, Ripoll F et al. Multicenter study of prevalence of nontuberculous mycobacteria in patients with cystic fibrosis in france. J Clin Microbiol 2009; 47: 4124-4128
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 64 Leung JM, Olivier KN. Nontuberculous mycobacteria in patients with cystic fibrosis. Semin Respir Crit Care Med 2013; 34: 124-134
  Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 65 Tomashefski JF, Stern RC, Demko CA et al. Nontuberculous mycobacteria in cystic fibrosis. An autopsy study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996; 154: 523-528
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 66 Fowler SJ, French J, Screaton NJ et al. Nontuberculous mycobacteria in bronchiectasis: Prevalence and patient characteristics. Eur Respir J 2006; 28: 1204-1210 Erratum in Eur Respir J 2007; 29: 614 – 615
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 67 Brown-Elliott BA, Mann LB, Hail D et al. Antimicrobial susceptibility of nontuberculous mycobacteria from eye infections. Cornea 2012; 31: 900-906
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 68 Bennett SN, Peterson DE, Johnson DR et al. Bronchoscopy-associated Mycobacterium xenopi pseudoinfections. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994; 150: 245-250
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 69 Sousa TS, Matherne RJ, Wilkerson MG. Case report: cutaneous nontuberculous mycobacterial abscesses associated with insulin injections. J Drugs Dermatol 2010; 9: 1439-1442
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 70 Song Y, Wu J, Yan H et al. Peritoneal dialysis-associated nontuberculous mycobacterium peritonitis: a systematic review of reported cases. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2012; 27: 1639-1644
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 71 Winthrop KL, Abrams M, Yakrus M et al. An outbreak of mycobacterial furunculosis associated with footbaths at a nail salon. N Engl J Med 2002; 346: 1366-1371
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 72 LeBlanc PM, Hollinger KA, Klontz KC. Tattoo ink-related infections -- awareness, diagnosis, reporting, and prevention. N Engl J Med 2012; 367: 985-987
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 73 Lewis FMT, Marsh BJ, von Reyn CF. Fish tank exposure and cutaneous infections due to Mycobacterium marinum: tuberculin skin testing, treatment, and prevention. Clin Infect Dis 2003; 37: 390-397
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 74 Walsh DS, Portaels F, Meyers WM. Buruli ulcer: Advances in understanding Mycobacterium ulcerans infection. Dermatol Clin 2011; 29: 1-8
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 75 Kirk O, Gatell JM, Mocroft A et al. Infections with Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Mycobacterium avium among HIV-infected patients after the introduction of highly active antiretroviral therapy. EuroSIDA Study Group JD. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000; 162: 865-872
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 76 Panel on Opportunistic Infections in HIV-Infected Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the prevention and treatment of opportunistic infections in HIV-infected adults and adolescents: recommendations from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the National Institutes of Health, and the HIV Medicine Association of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. [Internet]. Verfügbar unter: http://aidsinfo.nih.gov/contentfiles/lvguidelines/adult_oi.pdf
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 77 Rutsky EA, Rostand SG. Mycobacteriosis in patients with chronic renal failure. Arch Intern Med 1980; 140: 57-61
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 78 Sartori FG, Leandro LF, Montanari LB et al. Isolation and identification of environmental mycobacteria in the waters of a hemodialysis center. Curr Microbiol 2013; 67: 107-111
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 79 Daley CL. Nontuberculous mycobacterial disease in transplant recipients: early diagnosis and treatment. Curr Opin Organ Transplant 2009; 14: 619-624
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 80 Ferreira J, Grochowsky J, Krakower D et al. Mycobacterium marinum: an increasingly common opportunistic infection in patients on infliximab. Am J Gastroenterol 2012; 107: 1268-1269
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 81 Kump PK, Högenauer C, Wenzl HH et al. A case of opportunistic skin infection with Mycobacterium marinum during adalimumab treatment in a patient with Crohn’s disease. J Crohns Colitis 2013; 7: e15-18
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 82 Winthrop KL, Chang E, Yamashita S et al. Nontuberculous mycobacteria infections and anti-tumor necrosis factor-alpha therapy. Emerg Infect Dis 2009; 15: 1556-1561
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 83 Iseman MD. Mycobacterial infections in the era of modern biologic agents. Am J Med Sci 2011; 341: 278-280
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 84 Dirac MA, Horan KL, Doody DR et al. Environment or host? A case-control study of risk factors for Mycobacterium avium complex lung disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2012; 186: 684-691
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 85 Rupp J, Schaaf B. Infektionen mit nichttuberkulösen Mykobakterien bei Patienten mit Immundefekten. Pneumologe 2011; 8: 402-407
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 86 Colombo RE, Hill SC, Claypool RJ et al. Familial clustering of pulmonary nontuberculous mycobacterial disease. Chest 2010; 137: 629-634
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 87 Vinh DC, Patel SY, Uzel G et al. Autosomal dominant and sporadic monocytopenia with susceptibility to mycobacteria, fungi, papillomaviruses, and myelodysplasia. Blood 2010; 115: 1519-1529
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 88 Cassidy PM, Hedberg K, Saulson A et al. Nontuberculous mycobacterial disease prevalence and risk factors: a changing epidemiology. Clin Infect Dis 2009; 49: e124-129
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 89 Tortoli E. The new mycobacteria: an update. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 2006; 48: 159-178
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 90 Taillard C, Greub G, Weber R et al. Clinical implications of Mycobacterium kansasii species heterogenecity: Swiss National Survey. J Clin Microbiol 2003; 41: 1240-1244
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 91 Lindeboom JA, Bruijnesteijn van Coppenraet LES, van Soolingen D et al. Clinical manifestations, diagnosis, and treatment of Mycobacterium haemophilum infections. Clin Microbiol Rev 2011; 24: 701-717
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 92 O’Connell ML, Birkenkamp KE, Kleiner DE et al. Lung manifestations in an autopsy-based series of pulmonary or disseminated nontuberculous mycobacterial disease. Chest 2012; 141: 1203-1209
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 93 Hauer B, Loddenkemper R, Detjen A et al. [Interferon-gamma assays -- description and assessment of a new tool in the diagnosis of tuberculosis]. Pneumologie 2006; 60: 29-44
  Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 94 Lalvani A, Millington KA. Screening for tuberculosis infection prior to initiation of anti-TNF therapy. Autoimmun Rev 2008; 8: 147-152
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 95 van Ingen J. Diagnosis of nontuberculous mycobacterial infections. Semin Respir Crit Care Med 2013; 34: 103-109
  Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 96 Roth A, Reischl U, Schönfeld N et al. Mycobacterium heckeshornense sp. nov., A new pathogenic slowly growing Mycobacterium sp. Causing cavitary lung disease in an immunocompetent patient. J Clin Microbiol 2000; 38: 4102-4107
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 97 Kendall BA, Varley CD, Hedberg K et al. Isolation of non-tuberculous mycobacteria from the sputum of patients with active tuberculosis. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2010; 14: 654-656
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 98 Damaraju D, Jamieson F, Chedore P et al. Isolation of non-tuberculous mycobacteria among patients with pulmonary tuberculosis in Ontario, Canada. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2013; 17: 676-681
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 99 Koh WJ, Yu CM, Suh GY et al. Pulmonary TB and NTM lung disease: comparison of characteristics in patients with AFB smear-positive sputum. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2006; 10: 1001-1007
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 100 Greinert U, Lotz W. Pulmonale Infektionen durch nichttuberkulöse Mykobakterien. Radiologische Aspekte und Differenzialdiagnose. Pneumologe 2011; 8: 404-411
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 101 Richter E, Brown-Elliott BA, Wallace RJJ. Mycobacterium: Laboratory Characteristics of Slowly Growing Mycobacteria. In: Manual of clinical microbiology ASM Press; 2011
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 102 DIN 58943-4 Medizinische Mikrobiologie – Tuberkulosediagnostik – Teil 4: Primärproben zur Tuberkulose- und Mykobakteriosediagnostik – Qualitative und quantitative Anforderungen, Gewinnung, Transport und Aufbewahrung; Text Deutsch und Englisch (DIN 58943-4:2009).
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 103 Falkinham JO. Surrounded by mycobacteria: nontuberculous mycobacteria in the human environment. J Appl Microbiol 2009; 107: 356-367
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 104 Del Giudice G, Iadevaia C, Santoro G et al. Nontuberculous mycobacterial lung disease in patients without HIV infection: a retrospective analysis over 3 years. Clin Respir J 2011; 5: 203-210
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 105 DIN 58943-32 Medizinische Mikrobiologie – Tuberkulosediagnostik – Teil 32: Mikroskopische Methoden zum Nachweis von Mykobakterien (DIN 58943-32: 1995).
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 106 Richter E, Beer J, Diel R. Tuberkulose Mykobakteriose. Podbielski A, Mauch H, Herrmann H, et al. Qualitätsstandards in der mikrobiologisch-infektiologischen Diagnostik. 2. Auflage. Urban & Fischer in Elsevier; 2010
  Google Scholar
• 107 Richter E, Rüsch-Gerdes S, Niemann S et al. Detection, identification, and treatment of a novel, non-cultivable Mycobacterium species in an HIV patient. AIDS Lond Engl 2000; 14: 1667-1668
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 108 DIN 58943-3 Medizinische Mikrobiologie – Tuberkulosediagnostik – Teil 3: Kulturelle Methoden zum Nachweis von Mykobakterien (DIN 58943-3: 1996).
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 109 Hanna BA, Ebrahimzadeh A, Elliott LB et al. Multicenter evaluation of the BACTEC MGIT 960 system for recovery of mycobacteria. J Clin Microbiol 1999; 37: 748-752
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 110 Tortoli E, Cichero P, Piersimoni C et al. Use of BACTEC MGIT 960 for recovery of mycobacteria from clinical specimens: multicenter study. J Clin Microbiol 1999; 37: 3578-3582
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 111 Richter E, Rüsch-Gerdes S, Hillemann D et al. Evaluation of the GenoType Mycobacterium Assay for identification of mycobacterial species from cultures. J Clin Microbiol 2006; 44: 1769-1775
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 112 Russo C, Tortoli E, Menichella D. Evaluation of the new GenoType Mycobacterium assay for identification of mycobacterial species. J Clin Microbiol 2006; 44: 334-339
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 113 Lee AS, Jelfs P, Sintchenko V et al. Identification of non-tuberculous mycobacteria: utility of the GenoType Mycobacterium CM/AS assay compared with HPLC and 16S rRNA gene sequencing. J Med Microbiol 2009; 58: 900-904
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 114 Mäkinen J, Sarkola A, Marjamäki M et al. Evaluation of genotype and LiPA MYCOBACTERIA assays for identification of Finnish mycobacterial isolates. J Clin Microbiol 2002; 40: 3478-3481
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 115 Tortoli E, Mariottini A, Mazzarelli G. Evaluation of INNO-LiPA MYCOBACTERIA v2: improved reverse hybridization multiple DNA probe assay for mycobacterial identification. J Clin Microbiol 2003; 41: 4418-4420
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 116 Kirschner P, Springer B, Vogel U et al. Genotypic identification of mycobacteria by nucleic acid sequence determination: report of a 2-year experience in a clinical laboratory. J Clin Microbiol 1993; 31: 2882-2889
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 117 Roth A, Fischer M, Hamid ME et al. Differentiation of phylogenetically related slowly growing mycobacteria based on 16S-23S rRNA gene internal transcribed spacer sequences. J Clin Microbiol 1998; 36: 139-147
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 118 Han XY, Pham AS, Tarrand JJ et al. Rapid and accurate identification of mycobacteria by sequencing hypervariable regions of the 16S ribosomal RNA gene. Am J Clin Pathol 2002; 118: 796-801
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 119 Pauls RJ, Turenne CY, Wolfe JN et al. A high proportion of novel mycobacteria species identified by 16S rDNA analysis among slowly growing AccuProbe-negative strains in a clinical setting. Am J Clin Pathol 2003; 120: 560-566
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 120 Woods GL, Brown-Elliot B, Conville PS et al. Susceptibility testing of mycobacteria, norcardiae, and other aeroboic actinomycetes: approved standard. Clinical: Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute; 2011
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 121 Scarparo C, Ricordi P, Ruggiero G et al. Evaluation of the fully automated BACTEC MGIT 960 system for testing susceptibility of Mycobacterium tuberculosis to pyrazinamide, streptomycin, isoniazid, rifampin, and ethambutol and comparison with the radiometric BACTEC 460TB method. J Clin Microbiol 2004; 42: 1109-1114
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 122 Rüsch-Gerdes S, Pfyffer GE, Casal M et al. Multicenter laboratory validation of the BACTEC MGIT 960 technique for testing susceptibilities of Mycobacterium tuberculosis to classical second-line drugs and newer antimicrobials. J Clin Microbiol 2006; 44: 688-692
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 123 Lucke K, Hombach M, Friedel U et al. Automated quantitative drug susceptibility testing of non-tuberculous mycobacteria using MGIT 960/EpiCenter TB eXiST. J Antimicrob Chemother 2012; 67: 154-158
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 124 Hombach M, Somoskövi A, Hömke R et al. Drug susceptibility distributions in slowly growing non-tuberculous mycobacteria using MGIT 960 TB eXiST. Int J Med Microbiol 2013; 303: 270-276
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 125 DIN 58943-8 Medizinische Mikrobiologie – Tuberkulosediagnostik – Teil 8: Empfindlichkeitsprüfung von Tuberkulosebakterien gegen Chemotherapeutika (DIN 58943-8: 2009).
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 126 Nash KA, Brown-Elliott BA, Wallace RJ. A novel gene, erm(41), confers inducible macrolide resistance to clinical isolates of Mycobacterium abscessus but is absent from Mycobacterium chelonae. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2009; 53: 1367-1376
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 127 Bastian S, Veziris N, Roux A-L et al. Assessment of clarithromycin susceptibility in strains belonging to the Mycobacterium abscessus group by erm(41) and rrl sequencing. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2011; 55: 775-781
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 128 van Ingen J, Boeree MJ, van Soolingen D et al. Resistance mechanisms and drug susceptibility testing of nontuberculous mycobacteria. Drug Resist Updat 2012; 15: 149-161
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 129 Nash KA, Inderlied CB. Genetic basis of macrolide resistance in Mycobacterium avium isolated from patients with disseminated disease. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1995; 39: 2625-2630
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 130 van Ingen J, Egelund EF, Levin A et al. The pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of pulmonary Mycobacterium avium complex disease treatment. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2012; 186: 559-565
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 131 Koh W-J, Jeong B-H, Jeon K et al. Therapeutic drug monitoring in the treatment of Mycobacterium avium complex lung disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2012; 186: 797-802
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 132 Schluger NW. Treatment of pulmonary Mycobacterium avium complex infections: do drug levels matter?. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2012; 186: 710-711
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 133 Philley JV, Griffith DE. Management of nontuberculous mycobacterial (NTM) lung disease. Semin Respir Crit Care Med 2013; 34: 135-142
  Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 134 Ballarino GJ, Olivier KN, Claypool RJ et al. Pulmonary nontuberculous mycobacterial infections: antibiotic treatment and associated costs. Respir Med 2009; 103: 1448-1455
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 135 Schaberg T, Bauer T, Castell S et al. Empfehlungen zur Therapie, Chemoprävention und Chemoprophylaxe der Tuberkulose im Erwachsenen- und Kindesalter. Pneumologie 2012; 66: 133-171
  Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 136 van Ingen J, Verhagen AFTM, Dekhuijzen PNR et al. Surgical treatment of non-tuberculous mycobacterial lung disease: strike in time. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2010; 14: 99-105
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 137 Pomerantz M, Madsen L, Goble M et al. Surgical management of resistant mycobacterial tuberculosis and other mycobacterial pulmonary infections. Ann Thorac Surg 1991; 52: 1108-1111; discussion 1112
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 138 Nelson KG, Griffith DE, Brown BA et al. Results of operation in Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare lung disease. Ann Thorac Surg 1998; 66: 325-330
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 139 Junghanss T, Um Boock A, Vogel M et al. Phase change material for thermotherapy of Buruli ulcer: a prospective observational single centre proof-of-principle trial. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2009; 3: e380
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 140 Griffith DE, Aksamit TR. Therapy of refractory nontuberculous mycobacterial lung disease. Curr Opin Infect Dis 2012; 25: 218-227
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 141 Chaisson RE, Moore RD, Richman DD et al. Incidence and natural history of Mycobacterium avium-complex infections in patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus disease treated with zidovudine. The Zidovudine Epidemiology Study Group. Am Rev Respir Dis 1992; 146: 285-289
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 142 Nightingale SD, Byrd LT, Southern PM et al. Incidence of Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare complex bacteremia in human immunodeficiency virus-positive patients. J Infect Dis 1992; 165: 1082-1085
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 143 Lawn SD, Bekker L-G, Miller RF. Immune reconstitution disease associated with mycobacterial infections in HIV-infected individuals receiving antiretrovirals. Lancet Infect Dis 2005; 5: 361-373
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 144 Corbett EL, Blumberg L, Churchyard GJ et al. Nontuberculous mycobacteria: defining disease in a prospective cohort of South African miners. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1999; 160: 15-21
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 145 Bloch KC, Zwerling L, Pletcher MJ et al. Incidence and clinical implications of isolation of Mycobacterium kansasii: results of a 5-year, population-based study. Ann Intern Med 1998; 129: 698-704
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 146 Cattamanchi A, Nahid P, Marras TK et al. Detailed analysis of the radiographic presentation of Mycobacterium kansasii lung disease in patients with HIV infection. Chest 2008; 133: 875-880
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 147 Phillips P, Bonner S, Gataric N et al. Nontuberculous mycobacterial immune reconstitution syndrome in HIV-infected patients: spectrum of disease and long-term follow-up. Clin Infect Dis 2005; 41: 1483-1497
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 148 Shelburne SA, Hamill RJ, Rodriguez-Barradas MC et al. Immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome: emergence of a unique syndrome during highly active antiretroviral therapy. Medicine (Baltimore) 2002; 81: 213-227
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 149 Meintjes G, Wilkinson RJ, Morroni C et al. Randomized placebo-controlled trial of prednisone for paradoxical tuberculosis-associated immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome. AIDS 2010; 24: 2381-2390
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 150 Gordin FM, Cohn DL, Sullam PM et al. Early manifestations of disseminated Mycobacterium avium complex disease: a prospective evaluation. J Infect Dis 1997; 176: 126-132
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 151 Chaisson RE, Benson CA, Dube MP et al. Clarithromycin therapy for bacteremic Mycobacterium avium complex disease. A randomized, double-blind, dose-ranging study in patients with AIDS. AIDS Clinical Trials Group Protocol 157 Study Team. Ann Intern Med 1994; 121: 905-911
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 152 Benson CA, Williams PL, Currier JS et al. A prospective, randomized trial examining the efficacy and safety of clarithromycin in combination with ethambutol, rifabutin, or both for the treatment of disseminated Mycobacterium avium complex disease in persons with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Clin Infect Dis Off Publ Infect Dis Soc Am 2003; 37: 1234-1243
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 153 Dunne M, Fessel J, Kumar P et al. A randomized, double-blind trial comparing azithromycin and clarithromycin in the treatment of disseminated Mycobacterium avium infection in patients with human immunodeficiency virus. Clin Infect Dis 2000; 31: 1245-1252
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 154 Havlir DV, Dubé MP, Sattler FR et al. Prophylaxis against disseminated Mycobacterium avium complex with weekly azithromycin, daily rifabutin, or both. California Collaborative Treatment Group. N Engl J Med 1996; 335: 392-398
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 155 Pierce M, Crampton S, Henry D et al. A randomized trial of clarithromycin as prophylaxis against disseminated Mycobacterium avium complex infection in patients with advanced acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. N Engl J Med 1996; 335: 384-391
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 156 El-Sadr WM, Burman WJ, Grant LB et al. Discontinuation of prophylaxis for Mycobacterium avium complex disease in HIV-infected patients who have a response to antiretroviral therapy. Terry Beirn Community Programs for Clinical Research on AIDS. N Engl J Med 2000; 342: 1085-1092
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 157 Aberg JA, Williams PL, Liu T et al. A study of discontinuing maintenance therapy in human immunodeficiency virus-infected subjects with disseminated Mycobacterium avium complex: AIDS Clinical Trial Group 393 Study Team. J Infect Dis 2003; 187: 1046-1052
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 158 Haas WH. Diagnostik und Therapie von Erkrankungen durch nichttuberkulöse Mykobakterien im Kindesalter. Kinder- und Jugendarzt 2005; 403-408
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 159 Katila ML, Brander E, Backman A. Neonatal BCG vaccination and mycobacterial cervical adenitis in childhood. Tubercle 1987; 68: 291-296
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 160 Haverkamp MH, Lindeboom JA, de Visser AW et al. Nontuberculous mycobacterial cervicofacial lymphadenitis in children from the multicenter, randomized, controlled trial in The Netherlands: relevance of polymorphisms in candidate host immunity genes. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol 2010; 74: 752-754
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 161 Thegerström J, Romanus V, Friman V et al. Mycobacterium avium lymphadenopathy among children, Sweden. Emerg Infect Dis 2008; 14: 661-663
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 162 Blyth CC, Best EJ, Jones CA et al. Nontuberculous mycobacterial infection in children: a prospective national study. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2009; 28: 801-805
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 163 Reuss AM, Wiese-Posselt M, Weissmann B et al. Incidence rate of nontuberculous mycobacterial disease in immunocompetent children: a prospective nationwide surveillance study in Germany. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2009; 28: 642-644
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 164 Casanova JL. Mendelian susceptibility to mycobacterial infection in man. Swiss Med Wkly 2001; 131: 445-454
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 165 Reichenbach J, von Bernuth H. Genetisch bedingte Defekte der angeborenen Immunität - Erhöhte Anfälligkeit für mykobakterielle Infektionen, für invasive bakterielle Infektionen und für Herpes-simplex-Enzephalitis. Kinder- Jugendmed 2008; 8: 171-178
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 166 Fauroux B, Delaisi B, Clément A et al. Mycobacterial lung disease in cystic fibrosis: a prospective study. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1997; 16: 354-358
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 167 Esther CR, Henry MM, Molina PL et al. Nontuberculous mycobacterial infection in young children with cystic fibrosis. Pediatr Pulmonol 2005; 40: 39-44
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 168 Weigl JA, Haas WH. Postoperative Mycobacterium avium osteomyelitis confirmed by polymerase chain reaction. Eur J Pediatr 2000; 159: 64-69
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 169 Hoefsloot W, van Ingen J, de Lange WCM et al. Clinical relevance of Mycobacterium malmoense isolation in The Netherlands. Eur Respir J 2009; 34: 926-931
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 170 Magdorf K, Bialek R, Detjen AK. Tuberkulose und nicht tuberkulöse mykobakterielle Krankheiten. In: DGPI Handbuch Infektionen bei Kindern und Jugendlichen. Stuttgart: Thieme; 2009
  Google Scholar
• 171 Haas W. Erkrankungen durch Umweltmykobakterien. In: Therapie der Krankheiten im Kindes-und Jugendalter. Berlin: Springer; 2004: 449-453
  CrossrefGoogle Scholar
• 172 von Reyn C, Pozniak A, Haas W, Nichols G. Disseminated infection, cervical adenitis and other MAC infections. In: Pedley S, Bartram J, Rees G, et al., eds. Pathogenic mycobacteria in water: a guide to public health consequences, monitoring and management. London: IWA Publishing on behalf of the World Health Organization; 2004: 95-103
  Google Scholar
• 173 Detjen AK, Keil T, Roll S et al. Interferon-gamma release assays improve the diagnosis of tuberculosis and nontuberculous mycobacterial disease in children in a country with a low incidence of tuberculosis. Clin Infect Dis 2007; 45: 322-328
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 174 Mazurek GH, Jereb J, Vernon A et al. Updated guidelines for using Interferon Gamma Release Assays to detect Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection – United States, 2010. MMWR Recomm Rep 2010; 59: 1-25
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 175 Carvalho ACC, Codecasa L, Pinsi G et al. Differential diagnosis of cervical mycobacterial lymphadenitis in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2010; 29: 629-633
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 176 Lindeboom JA, Smets AMJB, Kuijper EJ et al. The sonographic characteristics of nontuberculous mycobacterial cervicofacial lymphadenitis in children. Pediatr Radiol 2006; 36: 1063-1067
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 177 Piersimoni C, Scarparo C. Extrapulmonary infections associated with nontuberculous mycobacteria in immunocompetent persons. Emerg Infect Dis 2009; 15: 1351-1358; quiz 1544
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 178 Wolinsky E. Mycobacterial lymphadenitis in children: a prospective study of 105 nontuberculous cases with long-term follow-up. Clin Infect Dis 1995; 20: 954-963
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 179 Schaad UB, Votteler TP, McCracken GH et al. Management of atypical mycobacterial lymphadenitis in childhood: a review based on 380 cases. J Pediatr 1979; 95: 356-360
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 180 Lindeboom JA, Kuijper EJ, Bruijnesteijn van Coppenraet ES et al. Surgical excision versus antibiotic treatment for nontuberculous mycobacterial cervicofacial lymphadenitis in children: a multicenter, randomized, controlled trial. Clin Infect Dis 2007; 44: 1057-1064
  Google Scholar
• 181 Lindeboom JA, Lindeboom R, Bruijnesteijn van Coppenraet ES et al. Esthetic outcome of surgical excision versus antibiotic therapy for nontuberculous mycobacterial cervicofacial lymphadenitis in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2009; 28: 1028-1030
  Google Scholar
• 182 Iversen RH, Illum P. Cervicofacial nontuberculous mycobacterial lymphadenitis in children. Dan Med J 2012; 59: A4349
  Google Scholar
• 183 Reuss A, Drzymala S, Hauer B. Langzeitverlauf und Therapieerfolg bei Lymphadenitiden durch nichttuberkulöse Mykobakterien bei Kindern in Deutschland [Internet]. Verfügbar unter: http://www.dgpi2012.de/media/PDFs/Abstractband_DGPI2012.pdf
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 184 Koh W-J, Jeong B-H, Jeon K et al. Clinical significance of the differentiation between Mycobacterium avium and Mycobacterium intracellulare in M avium complex lung disease. Chest 2012; 142: 1482-1488
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 185 Tortoli E, Rindi L, Garcia MJ et al. Proposal to elevate the genetic variant MAC-A, included in the Mycobacterium avium complex, to species rank as Mycobacterium chimaera sp.nov. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 2004; 54: 1277-1285
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 186 Murcia MI, Tortoli E, Menendez MC et al. Mycobacterium colombiense sp. nov., a novel member of the Mycobacterium avium complex and description of MAC-X as a new ITS genetic variant. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 2006; 56: 2049-2054
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 187 Bang D, Herlin T, Stegger M et al. Mycobacterium arosiense sp. nov., a slowly growing, scotochromogenic species causing osteomyelitis in an immunocompromised child. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 2008; 58: 2398-2402
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 188 van Ingen J, Boeree MJ, Kösters K et al. Proposal to elevate Mycobacterium avium complex ITS sequevar MAC-Q to Mycobacterium vulneris sp. nov. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 2009; 59: 2277-2282
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 189 Thorel MF, Krichevsky M, Lévy-Frébault VV. Numerical taxonomy of mycobactin-dependent mycobacteria, emended description of Mycobacterium avium, and description of Mycobacterium avium subsp.avium subsp. nov., Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis subsp. nov., and Mycobacterium avium subsp. silvaticum subsp. nov. Int J Syst Bacteriol 1990; 40: 254-260
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 190 Mijs W, de Haas P, Rossau R et al. Molecular evidence to support a proposal to reserve the designation Mycobacterium avium subsp. avium for bird-type isolates and “M. avium subsp. hominissuis” for the human/porcine type of M. avium. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 2002; 52: 1505-1518
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 191 Dhama K, Mahendran M, Tiwari R et al. Tuberculosis in Birds: Insights into the Mycobacterium avium Infections. Vet Med Int 2011; 2011: 712369
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 192 Sweeney RW, Collins MT, Koets AP et al. Paratuberculosis (Johne’s disease) in cattle and other susceptible species. J Vet Intern Med 2012; 26: 1239-1250
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 193 Over K, Crandall PG, O’Bryan CA et al. Current perspectives on Mycobacterium avium subsp.paratuberculosis, Johne’s disease, and Crohn’s disease: a review. Crit Rev Microbiol 2011; 37: 141-156
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 194 Kim S-Y, Lee S-T, Jeong B-H et al. Clinical significance of mycobacterial genotyping in Mycobacterium avium lung disease in Korea. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2012; 16: 1393-1399
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 195 Falkinham JO. Hospital water filters as a source of Mycobacterium avium complex. J Med Microbiol 2010; 59: 1198-1202
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 196 Lam PK, Griffith DE, Aksamit TR et al. Factors related to response to intermittent treatment of Mycobacterium avium complex lung disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2006; 173: 1283-1289
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 197 Shafran SD, Talbot JA, Chomyc S et al. Does in vitro susceptibility to rifabutin and ethambutol predict the response to treatment of Mycobacterium avium complex bacteremia with rifabutin, ethambutol, and clarithromycin? Canadian HIV Trials Network Protocol 010 Study Group. Clin Infect Dis 1998; 27: 1401-1405
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 198 Maartens G, Decloedt E, Cohen K. Effectiveness and safety of antiretrovirals with rifampicin: crucial issues for high-burden countries. Antivir Ther 2009; 14: 1039-1043
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 199 Kobashi Y, Matsushima T, Oka M. A double-blind randomized study of aminoglycoside infusion with combined therapy for pulmonary Mycobacterium avium complex disease. Respir Med 2007; 101: 130-138
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 200 Kohno Y, Ohno H, Miyazaki Y et al. In vitro and in vivo activities of novel fluoroquinolones alone and in combination with clarithromycin against clinically isolated Mycobacterium avium complex strains in Japan. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2007; 51: 4071-4076
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 201 Butler WR, O’Connor SP, Yakrus MA et al. Mycobacterium celatum sp. nov. Int J Syst Bacteriol 1993; 43: 539-548
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 202 Piersimoni C, Tortoli E, De Sio G. Disseminated infection due to Mycobacterium celatum in patient with AIDS. Lancet 1994; 344: 332
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 203 Bull TJ, Shanson DC, Archard LC et al. A new group (type 3) of Mycobacterium celatum isolated from AIDS patients in the London area. Int J Syst Bacteriol 1995; 45: 861-862
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 204 Piersimoni C, Zitti PG, Nista D et al. Mycobacterium celatum pulmonary infection in the immunocompetent: case report and review. Emerg Infect Dis 2003; 9: 399-402
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 205 Jun H-J, Lee NY, Kim J et al. Successful treatment of Mycobacterium celatum pulmonary disease in an immunocompetent patient using antimicobacterial chemotherapy and combined pulmonary resection. Yonsei Med J 2010; 51: 980-983
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 206 Böttger EC, Teske A, Kirschner P et al. Disseminated „Mycobacterium genavense“ infection in patients with AIDS. Lancet 1992; 340: 76-80
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 207 Hoefsloot W, van Ingen J, Peters EJG et al. Mycobacterium genavense in the Netherlands: an opportunistic pathogen in HIV and non-HIV immunocompromised patients. An observational study in 14 cases. Clin Microbiol Infect 2013; 19: 432-437
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 208 Krebs T, Zimmerli S, Bodmer T et al. Mycobacterium genavense infection in a patient with long-standing chronic lymphocytic leukaemia. J Intern Med 2000; 248: 343-348
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 209 Lorenzen J, Meyer-Olson D, Haubitz M et al. Infection with Mycobacterium genavense in a patient with systemic lupus erythematosus. Clin Rheumatol 2009; 28 (Suppl. 01) 39-41
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 210 Gößwald A. Klinik, Diagnostik, Therapie und Verlauf pulmonaler Infektionen durch nichttuberkulöse Mykobakterien bei HIV-negativen Patienten in Berlin 1986 – 1998. Berlin: Freie Universität; 2004
  Google Scholar
• 211 Griffith DE, Brown-Elliott BA, Wallace RJ et al. Thrice-weekly clarithromycin-containing regimen for treatment of Mycobacterium kansasii lung disease: results of a preliminary study. Clin Infect Dis 2003; 37: 1178-1182
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 212 Abgueguen P, Rabier V, Mahaza C et al. Mycobacterium malmoense: an underestimated nontuberculous mycobacterium. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2010; 66: 98-100
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 213 Murray MP, Laurenson IF, Hill AT et al. Outcomes of a standardized triple-drug regimen for the treatment of nontuberculous mycobacterial pulmonary infection. Clin Infect Dis 2008; 47: 222-224
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 214 Esteban J, García-Pedrazuela M, Muñoz-Egea MC et al. Current treatment of nontuberculous mycobacteriosis: an update. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2012; 13: 967-986
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 215 Petrini B. Mycobacterium marinum: ubiquitous agent of waterborne granulomatous skin infections. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2006; 25: 609-613
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 216 Aubry A, Chosidow O, Caumes E et al. Sixty-three cases of Mycobacterium marinum infection: clinical features, treatment, and antibiotic susceptibility of causative isolates. Arch Intern Med 2002; 162: 1746-1752
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 217 Cheung JP, Fung B, Wong SS et al. Review article: Mycobacterium marinum infection of the hand and wrist. J Orthop Surg (Hong Kong) 2010; 18: 98-103
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 218 Narang R, Narang P, Jain AP et al. Disseminated disease caused by Mycobacterium simiae in AIDS patients: a report of three cases. Clin Microbiol Infect 2010; 16: 912-914
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 219 van Ingen J, Boeree MJ, de Lange WCM et al. Clinical relevance of Mycobacterium szulgai in The Netherlands. Clin Infect Dis 2008; 46: 1200-1205
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 220 Varadi RG, Marras TK. Pulmonary Mycobacterium xenopi infection in non-HIV-infected patients: a systematic review. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2009; 13: 1210-1218
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 221 Adékambi T, Reynaud-Gaubert M, Greub G et al. Amoebal coculture of “Mycobacterium massiliense” sp. nov. from the sputum of a patient with hemoptoic pneumonia. J Clin Microbiol 2004; 42: 5493-5501
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 222 Adékambi T, Berger P, Raoult D et al. rpoB gene sequence-based characterization of emerging non-tuberculous mycobacteria with descriptions of Mycobacterium bolletii sp.nov., Mycobacterium phocaicum sp. nov. and Mycobacterium aubagnense sp. nov. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 2006; 56: 133-143
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 223 Leao SC, Tortoli E, Euzéby JP et al. Proposal that Mycobacterium massiliense and Mycobacterium bolletii be united and reclassified as Mycobacterium abscessus subsp.bolletii comb. nov., designation of Mycobacterium abscessus subsp. abscessus subsp. nov. and emended description of Mycobacterium abscessus. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 2011; 61: 2311-2313
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 224 Aitken ML, Limaye A, Pottinger P et al. Respiratory outbreak of Mycobacterium abscessus subspecies massiliense in a lung transplant and cystic fibrosis center. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2012; 185: 231-232
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 225 Gilljam M, Scherstén H, Silverborn M et al. Lung transplantation in patients with cystic fibrosis and Mycobacterium abscessus infection. J Cyst Fibros 2010; 9: 272-276
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 226 Choi G-E, Shin SJ, Won C-J et al. Macrolide treatment for Mycobacterium abscessus and Mycobacterium massiliense infection and inducible resistance. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2012; 186: 917-925
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 227 Choi G-E, Min K-N, Won C-J et al. Activities of moxifloxacin in combination with macrolides against clinical isolates of Mycobacterium abscessus and Mycobacterium massiliense. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2012; 56: 3549-3555
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 228 Huang Y-C, Liu M-F, Shen G-H et al. Clinical outcome of Mycobacterium abscessus infection and antimicrobial susceptibility testing. J Microbiol Immunol Infect 2010; 43: 401-406
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 229 Jarand J, Levin A, Zhang L et al. Clinical and microbiologic outcomes in patients receiving treatment for Mycobacterium abscessus pulmonary disease. Clin Infect Dis 2011; 52: 565-571
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 230 Griffith DE. UpToDate Topic 5347 Version 13.0: Rapidly growing mycobacterial infections in HIV-negative patients. Release 21.6, 2013
  PubMedGoogle Scholar