Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Measuring Posttraumatic Stress Reactions in Children: A Preliminary Validation of the Children’s Responses to Trauma Inventory

  • Assessment
  • Published:
Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The Children’s Responses to Trauma Inventory (CRTI) is a self-report measure for posttraumatic stress reactions in children. We validated the original CRTI through secondary data analysis of four clinical and nonclinical samples (N = 96) and expert consultation. After revision, the CRTI was further validated in 8- to 12-year-old traumatized children in the general population (N = 243). The original CRTI showed moderate to excellent reliability and both convergent and discriminant validity, but it also had limitations in formulation and scope of the items. The revised measure showed good to excellent reliability. Convergent validity was established against measures for posttraumatic stress and quality of life. These preliminary results must be confirmed in larger samples with more extensive analyses.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Achenbach, T. M. (1991). Manual for the Child Behavior Checklist/4–18 and 1991 profile. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry.

    Google Scholar 

  • Alisic, E., Eland, J., & Kleber, R. J. (2006). Schokverwerkingslijst voor Kinderen — herziene versie [Children’s Responses to Trauma Inventory-Revised version]. Zaltbommel/Utrecht, the Netherlands: Institute for Psychotrauma in collaboration with Clinical Psychology Utrecht University and Psychotrauma Center for Children and Youth (UMC Utrecht).

    Google Scholar 

  • Alisic, E., Van der Schoot, T. A. W., Van Ginkel, J. R., & Kleber, R. J. (2008). Looking beyond posttraumatic stress disorder in children: Posttraumatic stress reactions, posttraumatic growth, and quality of life in a general population sample. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 29, 1455–1461.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text rev.). Washington, DC: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anthony, J. L., Lonigan, C. J., Vernberg, E. M., La Greca, A., Silverman, W. K., & Prinstein, M. J. (2005). Multisample cross-validation of a model of childhood posttraumatic stress disorder symptomatology. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 18, 667–676.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Armsworth, M. W., & Holaday, M. (1993). The effects of psychological trauma on children and adolescents. Journal of Counseling and Development, 72, 49–56.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bolton, D., O’Ryan, D., Udwin, O., Boyle, S., & Yule, W. (2000). The long-term psychological effects of a disaster experienced in adolescence: II: General psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 41, 513–523.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Briere, J. (1996). Psychometric review of the Trauma Symptom Checklist for Children. In B. H. Stamm (Ed.), Measurement of stress, trauma, and adaptation (pp. 43–68). Lutherville, MD: Sidran Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bronner, M. B., Knoester, H., Bos, A. P., Last, B. F., & Grootenhuis, M. A. (2008). Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in children after paediatric intensive care treatment compared to children who survived a major fire disaster. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 2(9).

    Google Scholar 

  • Carrion, V. G., Weems, C. F., Ray, R., & Reiss, A. L. (2002). Toward an empirical definition of pediatric PTSD: The phenomenology of PTSD symptoms in youth. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 41, 166–173.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Children and War Foundation. (1998). Children’s Revised Impact of Event Scale (CRIES-13). Retrieved from http://www.childrenandwar.org/instruments url

    Google Scholar 

  • Cloitre, M., Stolbach, B. C., Herman, J. L., Van der Kolk, B., Pynoos, R., Wang, J., et al. (2009). A developmental approach to complex PTSD: Childhood and adult cumulative trauma as predictors of symptom complexity. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 22, 399–408.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Copeland, W. E., Keeler, G., Angold, A., & Costello, E. J. (2007). Traumatic events and posttraumatic stress in childhood. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64, 577–584.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dorresteijn, A. M., Velden, P. G., Kleber, R. J., & Gersons, B. P. R. (2003). De vuurwerkramp Enschede. Een vergelijkend onderzoek bij de getroffen kinderen en gezinnen [The firework disaster in Enschede. A comparison study on victimized children and families]. Zaltbommel/Amsterdam, the Netherlands: Institute for Psychotrauma in cooperation with AMC/De Meren.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eland, J. (1997). Onderzoek bij een justitiële inrichting [Study in a prison setting]. Unpublished manuscript.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eland, J., de Roos, C. J. A. M., & Kleber, R. J. (1999). Ontwikkelingsonderzoek naar een opvangprotocol voor kinderen na acute traumatisering [Study on a protocol for debriefing children after acute trauma]. Utrecht, the Netherlands: Institute for Psychotrauma.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eland, J., de Roos, C. J. A. M., & Kleber, R. J. (2000). Kind en trauma [Child and trauma]. Lisse, the Netherlands: Swets & Zeitlinger.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eland, J., & Kleber, R. J. (1996). Schokverwerkingslijst voor (Jonge) Kinderen [Children’s Responses to Trauma Inventory]. Utrecht, the Netherlands: Institute for Psychotrauma.

    Google Scholar 

  • Evans, L. G., & Oehler-Stinnett, J. (2006). Structure and prevalence of PTSD symptomatology in children who have experienced a severe tornado. Psychology in the Schools, 43, 283–295.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Foa, E. B., Johnson, K. M., Feeny, N. C., & Treadwell, K. R. H. (2001). The child PTSD symptom scale: Preliminary examination of its psychometric properties. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 30, 376–384.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goenjian, A. K., Pynoos, R. S., Steinberg, A. M., Najarian, L. M., Asarnow, J. R., Karayan, I., et al. (1995). Psychiatric comorbidity in children after the 1988 earthquake in Armenia. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 1174–1184.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goudriaan, M., & Margadant, S. (1998). Toen de soldaten kwamen. Onderzoek naar posttraumatische reacties bij Bosnische vluchtelingenkinderen [When the soldiers came. Study on posttraumatic reactions in children of Bosnian refugees]. Utrecht, the Netherlands: Utrecht University, Faculty of Social Sciences.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hamada, R. S., Kameoka, V., Yanagida, E., & Chemtob, C. M. (2003). Assessment of elementary school children for disaster-related posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms: The Kauai Recovery Index. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 191, 268–271.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hawkins, S. S., & Radcliffe, J. (2006). Current measures of PTSD for children and adolescents. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 31, 420–430.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Horowitz, M. J. (1976). Stress response syndromes. Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Horowitz, M. J., Wilner, N., & Alvarez, W. (1979). Impact of Event Scale: A measure of subjective stress. Psychosomatic Medicine, 41, 209–218.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kaminer, D., Seedat, S., & Stein, D. J. (2005). Post-traumatic stress disorder in children. World Psychiatry, 4, 121–125.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nader, K. O., & Fairbank, L. A. (1994). The suppression of reexperiencing: Impulse control and somatic symptoms in children following traumatic exposure. Anxiety, Stress, and Coping, 7, 229–239.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ohan, J. L., Myers, K., & Collett, B. R. (2002). Ten-year review of rating scales IV: Scales assessing trauma and its effects. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 41, 1401–1422.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Olff, M. (2005). Herziene Kinder Schokverwerkingslijst [Children’s Revised Impact of Event Scale]. Amsterdam, the Netherlands: Amsterdam Medical Center.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perrin, S., Meiser-Stedman, R., & Smith, P. (2005). The Children’s Revised Impact of Event Scale (CRIES): Validity as a screening instrument for PTSD. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 33, 487–498.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ravens-Sieberer, U., Auquier, P., Erhart, M., Gosch, A., Rajmil, L., Bruil, J., et al. (2007). The KIDSCREEN-27 quality of life measure for children and adolescents: Psychometric results from a cross-cultural survey in 13 European countries. Quality of Life Research, 16, 1347–1356.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ravens-Sieberer, U., Gosch, A., Abel, T., Auquier, P., Bellach, B. M., Bruil, J., et al. (2001). Quality of life in children and adolescents: A European public health perspective. Social and Preventive Medicine, 46, 294–302.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rosen, G. M., & Lilienfeld, S. O. (2008). Posttraumatic stress disorder: An empirical evaluation of core assumptions. Clinical Psychology Review, 28, 837–868.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rosen, G. M., Spitzer, R. L., & McHugh, P. R. (2008). Problems with the posttraumatic stress disorder diagnosis and its future in DSM-V. British Journal of Psychiatry, 192, 3–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Salmon, K., & Bryant, R. A. (2002). Posttraumatic stress disorder in children: The influence of developmental factors. Clinical Psychology Review, 22, 163–188.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scheeringa, M. S., Wright, M. J., Hunt, J. P., & Zeanah, C. H. (2006). Factors affecting the diagnosis and prediction of PTSD symptomatology in children and adolescents. American Journal of Psychiatry, 163, 644–651.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scheeringa, M. S., Zeanah, C. H., Myers, L., & Putnam, F. W. (2003). New findings on alternative criteria for PTSD in preschool children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 42, 561–570.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Silverman, W. K., & Albano, A. M. (1996). Anxiety Disorder Interview Schedule for DSM-IV: Child and Parent Interview Schedule. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, P., Perrin, S., Dyregrov, A., & Yule, W. (2003). Principal components analysis of the impact of event scale with children in war. Personality and Individual Differences, 34, 315–322.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Statistics Netherlands. (2007). Figures. Retrieved from http://www.cbs.nl url

    Google Scholar 

  • The Kidscreen Group. (2004). Manual for the KIDSCREEN Questionnaires. Retrieved from http://www.kidscreen.org url

    Google Scholar 

  • Verhulst, F. C., Van der Ende, J., & Koot, H. M. (1996). Handleiding voor de CBCL/4–18 [Manual for the CBCL/4–18]. Rotterdam, the Netherlands: Erasmus University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yasik, A. E., Saigh, P. A., Oberfield, R. A., Green, B., Halamandaris, P., & McHugh, M. (2001). The validity of the Children’s PTSD Inventory. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 14, 81–94.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yule, W., Perrin, S., & Smith, P. (1999). Post-traumatic stress reactions in children and adolescents. In W. Yule (Ed.), Post-traumatic stress disorders: Concepts and therapy (pp. 35–50). Chichester, England: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Psychotrauma Center for Children and Youth, University Medical Center Utrecht, KA.00.004.0, P.O. Box 85090, 3508, AB Utrecht, the Netherlands

    Eva Alisic

  2. Utrecht University, the Netherlands

    Rolf J. Kleber

  3. Institute for Psychotrauma/Foundation Centrum ′45, the Netherlands

    Rolf J. Kleber

Authors
  1. Eva Alisic
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Rolf J. Kleber
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Eva Alisic.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Alisic, E., Kleber, R.J. Measuring Posttraumatic Stress Reactions in Children: A Preliminary Validation of the Children’s Responses to Trauma Inventory. Journ Child Adol Trauma 3, 192–204 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1080/19361521.2010.500979

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/19361521.2010.500979

Keywords

Search

Navigation