Background
Mammaglobin A (secretoglobin, family 2A, member 2 –
SCGB2A2) and lipophilin B (secretoglobin, family 1D, member 2 –
SCGB1D2) are members of the secretoglobin superfamily, a group of small, secretory, rarely glycosylated, dimeric proteins with unclear physiologic functions, mainly expressed in mucosal tissues [
1,
2]. The rabbit uteroglobin is the founder member of this family of mammalian proteins [
1], which has expanded to more than 25 members in recent years, currently including nine human secretoglobins. Mammaglobin A, lipophilin B, and most of the human secretoglobins are localized on chromosome 11q13, where they form a dense cluster [
1].
The mammaglobin A gene (
SCGB2A2) encodes a 93-amino acid protein with a predicted molecular mass of 10.5 kDa [
3,
4]. In breast tissue it exists in two main forms with approximate molecular masses of 18 and 25 kDa, due to posttranslational modifications [
5]. Mammaglobin A is considered to be a highly specific breast tissue marker; initially it was found to be overexpressed in breast cancer, and its expression was restricted to normal and malignant breast tissue [
3,
4]. No gene amplification or gene rearrangement was detected in tumors overexpressing mammaglobin A, suggesting changes in transcriptional regulation as the cause of overexpression [
4]. In contrast to other members of the secretoglobin family [
6], its expression does not appear to be influenced by steroid hormones [
4,
7].
Due to its tissue specificity, mammaglobin A has drawn much attention with more than 70 relevant publications in the last five years. More than 30 studies have evaluated its role in detection of minimal residual disease in breast cancer patients, while others investigated its role as a diagnostic and prognostic marker, and its potential use as a therapeutic target (see Ref. 8 for review). Recently however, some studies have shown that it is also expressed in tissues other than the breast [
7,
9‐
14]. In breast cancer mammaglobin A is overexpressed in a high proportion of primary tumors [
7,
14‐
17], and it is associated with estrogen receptor positive tumors, a less aggressive tumor phenotype [
7,
14,
15,
17], and relapse-free survival [
7].
Lipophilin B (
SCGB1D2) has not been studied as extensively as mammaglobin A. The secreted lipophilins A, B, and C should not be confused with the family of lipophilins described as hydrophobic integral membrane proteins in myelin [
1]. Lipophilin B is expressed in a high proportion of breast carcinomas [
14,
18], it is more frequently expressed in estrogen receptor positive tumors [
14], but it shows a lower degree of tissue-specificity [
18]. Recently, two studies independently showed that in breast cancer the mammaglobin A and lipophilin B proteins form a covalent complex, and that the two proteins are bonded in a head-to-tail orientation [
19,
20]. Moreover, the expression levels of mammaglobin A in breast tumors were significantly correlated with those of lipophilin B [
14,
19,
20].
The association between mammaglobin A and lipophilin B in breast cancer, the controversy about tissue-specificity of mammaglobin A, and the clinical implications by the use of both genes in cancer early detection, diagnosis, and treatment gave us the impetus to systematically analyse their expression in a large panel of normal and malignant human tissues and cell lines. We report herein that mammaglobin A expression and its co-expression with lipophilin B are not restricted to breast cancer, and that their applications in cancer diagnosis and treatment could also include malignancies of the female genital tract.
Methods
Tissue specimens and cell lines
Formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissue from cervical, endometrial and breast cancer and corresponding normal tissue specimens were obtained from patients treated at the Gynecology Departments of the Charité Berlin and the University Hospital of Aachen, with institutional review board approval. Cell lines were obtained from ATCC and cultured as described in the ATCC cell biology catalogue (LGC Promochem, Teddington, England). The following 11 cell lines were analyzed by RT-PCR: HaCat (human keratinocytes), MCF-10A (breast tissue, fibrocystic disease), T47D (breast cancer), ZR75.1 (breast cancer), MDA-MB 468 (breast cancer), MDA-MB 231 (breast cancer), PC3 (prostate cancer), LnCaP (prostate cancer), DU 145 (prostate cancer), MaTu (breast cancer), and A375 (malignant melanoma).
Multiple tissue northern blot in malignant and normal breast tissue
Mammaglobin A and lipophilin B expression was analyzed on a Clontech (Heidelberg, Germany) multiple tissue northern blot containing four pairs of invasive ductal carcinoma and matched normal tissue from four female patients (51, 36, 47, and 45 years old). Hybridization was performed as described in the following section for the tumor/normal cDNA arrays.
Expression analysis using tumor/normal cDNA arrays
Mammaglobin A and lipophilin B expression were each analyzed using two different nylon filter arrays from Clontech (Heidelberg, Germany), each containing spotted cDNAs from tumor and corresponding normal tissue of the same patient. The "Matched Tumor/Normal Expression Array" (MTNA) (Clontech, Product number 7840) consisted of 136 cDNAs, synthesized from 68 tumor and 68 matched normal tissue specimens. The "Cancer Profiling Array" (CPA) (Clontech, Product number 7841) consisted of 511 dots with 494 cDNAs synthesized from 241 primary tumor, 241 matched normal tissue, and 12 cDNAs from metastases corresponding to 12 of the tumor/normal pairs. Each cDNA pair was independently normalized based on the expression of housekeeping genes used as controls and immobilized in separate dots [
22]. Data for controls and clinicopathological parameters for each specimen can be found on the provider's website [
23,
24].
For both the MTNA and CPA, hybridization was performed using 25 ng of a gene-specific 32P-labeled cDNA probe derived from Unigene cDNA clones (SCGB2A2: AA513640; SCGB1D2: AJ224172). These gene-specific cDNA fragments were radiolabelled using a Megaprime labelling kit (Amersham Biosciences, Braunschweig, Germany), hybridized overnight at 68°C using ExpressHyb Hybridization Solution (Clontech, Heidelberg, Germany), washed, and exposed to Kodak XAR-5 X-ray film with an intensifying screen (Eastman Kodak Co, Rochester, NY, USA). The tumor/normal intensity ratio was calculated using a Typhoon 9410 High Performance Imager (GE-Healthcare, Chalfont St. Giles, UK) and normalized against the background.
The specificity of the mammaglobin A and lipophilin B hybridization probes was determined by co-hybridization of nylon membranes containing different concentrations of spotted mammaglobin A and lipophilin B cDNAs in plasmid clones: 1 ng, 100 pg, 10 pg and 1 pg of cDNA from each gene were diluted in 100 ul of 15XSSC buffer, heat-denatured for 5 min by boiling and then quenched on ice. Denatured cDNAs were spotted on Hybond N+ membranes (Amersham Biosciences, Freiburg, Germany) using a vacuum manifold (Millipore, Eschborn, Germany). These membranes were treated during filter hybridization, washing and exposition exactly like the tumor/normal arrays
Quantitative RT-PCR
Mammaglobin A and lipophilin B expression were analyzed with real-time RT-PCR in a panel of 11 cell lines (see above) and 23 normal human tissues (see Figures
5 and
6) using commercially available RNA (Clontech, Heidelberg, Germany). For each cDNA synthesis, 1μg of RNA was reverse transcribed using the Superscript II Reverse Transcription System (Invitrogen, Karlsruhe, Germany), according to the instructions of the manufacturer.
Real-time RT-PCR was performed with the Gen Amp
® 5700 sequence detection system (PE Applied Biosystems, Weiterstadt, Germany), using intron-spanning primers and FAM (5' end)/TAMRA (3' end) – labeled specific oligonucleotides. The housekeeping gene
GAPDH was used as reference. Primers and probes used in this study are presented in Table
1. Each PCR reaction was performed in a 25μl volume, which included 12.5μl 2XTaqMan Universal PCR-Mastermix (PE Applied Biosystems, Weiterstadt, Germany), 1 ng of cDNA template, 300 nM of forward and 900 nM of reverse primer, and the specific probe for each gene (150 nM for mammaglobin A and 100 nM for lipophilin B). Gene expression was quantified by the comparative C
T method, normalizing C
T-values to the housekeeping gene
GAPDH and calculating the relative expression values of tumor and normal tissues [
21].
Table 1
Primers and probes used in real-time RT-PCR
SCGB2A2
| 5'-GAACACCGACAGCAGCA-3' 5'-TCTCCAATAAGGGGCAGCC-3' | 104 bp |
SCGB1D2 | 5'-CTGAGCTCACAGCAAAAC -3' 5'-GAGCTGGGCAGAAC-3' | 105 bp |
GAPDH | 5'-GAAGGTGAAGGTCGGAGTC-3' 5'-GAAGATGGTGATGGGATTTC-3' | 226 bp |
Gene
|
TaqMan probe
| |
SCGB2A2 | 5'-TGGTCCTCATGCTGGCGGCC-3' | |
SCGB1D2
| 5'-CCATGAAGCTGTCGGTGTGTCTCCTG-3' | |
GAPDH | 5'-CAAGCTTCCCGTTCTCAGCC-3' | |
Non-radioisotopic RNA in situ hybridization
Non-radioisotopic RNA
in situ hybridization in cervical and endometrial cancer and matched normal tissue was performed as previously described [
25].
Immunohistochemistry
Formalin-fixed paraffin embedded tissue was freshly cut (4μm). The sections were mounted on superfrost slides (Menzel Gläser, Braunschweig, Germany), deparaffinized with xylene and gradually hydrated. We used a monoclonal anti-mammaglobin A antibody (BioPrime, NY, USA, MAM001-05, dilution 1:100). Antigen retrieval for mammaglobin A was achieved by heat and citrate buffer using the Ventana immunostainer and all slides were stained with the BenchMark® XT autostainer (Ventana, Tucson AZ, USA).
Discussion
In initial reports mammaglobin A appeared to be an almost ideal tissue marker, since its expression was restricted to normal and malignant breast tissue (see Ref. 8 for review). Subsequently, mammaglobin A was evaluated for detection of minimal residual disease in breast cancer patients [
8,
26,
27], differential diagnosis of metastases and malignant pleural effusions [
26‐
29], and as an immunotherapeutic target in
in vitro experiments [
30‐
33] and
in vivo animal models [
34,
35]. However, in later reports, its expression was detected, rarely and/or in low levels, in various normal and malignant tissues: the normal uterine cervix [
10], uterus [
9‐
11,
36], ovary [
10,
14,
36], thymus, testis, trachea, skeletal muscle, kidney [
36], skin [
18], sweat glands [
13], salivary glands [
18,
36], prostate [
10], and nasal mucosa [
37], and tumors of the sweat glands [
13], lungs [
12] and ovaries [
14].
Our results confirm that mammaglobin A is expressed in various normal and malignant tissues other than the breast, and thus it is rather not an ideal breast-specific marker. Expression of mammaglobin A in normal tissues certainly limits its potential use as an immunotherapeutic target, due to concerns about autoimmune toxicity, particularly since autoimmunity is not a concern with other immunotherapeutic targets [
38]. Our results, also confirm previous reports that mammaglobin A is not expressed in all breast cancer cell lines and breast tumors [
3,
4,
7,
14,
16,
39], and thus does not have a 100% sensitivity as a diagnostic marker. An important finding of our study was that mammaglobin A is commonly expressed in normal and malignant tissue of the female genital tract, and only rarely or at low levels in other normal and malignant tissues. It should be noted that expression in gynecologic tissues was demonstrated by four independent methods (dot blot hybridization of matched tumor/normal arrays, real time RT-PCR, non-radioisotopic RNA
in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry). Thus, given the limitations in specificity and sensitivity, mammaglobin A could be also used in diagnostic assays for detection of gynecologic malignancies.
The expression pattern of lipophilin B in our study, as well as in previous reports, appeared to be even less tissue specific than that of mammaglobin A, and thus its use as a diagnostic marker seems very unlikely. In the present study, lipophilin B was abundantly expressed in normal and malignant tissue from the breast, cervix, uterus, ovary, kidney and prostate. Lower or rare lipophilin B expression was found in normal colon, pancreas, heart, in gastric and rectal tumors, and as previously reported in normal testis and placenta [
36] and lung tumors [
12]. In previous reports, lipophilin B expression was also detected in the normal anterior pituitary and pituitary adenomas [
40], in normal adrenal gland, cartilage, retina, [
18], skin [
19], and salivary gland [
19,
36].
The most important finding regarding lipophilin B expression in the present study was that it is concordant to that of mammaglobin A in most tissues tested. It has been previously reported, that mammaglobin A and lipophilin B are significantly co-expressed in breast cancer [
14,
19,
20], and their proteins are bonded in an antiparallel manner forming a covalent complex [
19,
20]. In the present study we found that their co-expression is not restricted to breast tumors, but is also present in normal breast tissue, as well as normal and malignant tissue from the uterus, ovaries, and uterine cervix. On the other hand, in normal and malignant prostate and kidney tissue lipophilin B was abundantly expressed while mammaglobin A was entirely absent. Interestingly, the only gastric and two rectal tumors expressing mammaglobin A expressed lipophilin B as well, but this was not seen in lung cancer. Altogether, these data suggest that expression of the two genes, which are both localized on the same cluster on chromosome 11q13, is probably regulated by common transcriptional mechanisms. It is also reasonable to expect, that serum antibodies against lipophilin B or against its complex with mammaglobin A, as those previously detected in breast cancer patients [
18], could also be found in patients with gynecologic tumors.
Conclusion
Systematic expression analysis of a panel of solid tumors and normal tissues showed that mammaglobin A and lipophilin B are abundantly expressed in malignant and normal tissues of the breast and the female genital tract, namely the cervix, uterus, and ovary, while lower expression levels were rarely found in other tumors and normal tissues. Intriguingly, the expression pattern of the two genes was highly concordant in most tissues tested, suggesting common regulatory transcriptional mechanisms. Use of mammaglobin A and its complex with lipophilin B in breast cancer diagnosis might lead to less specific results than previously expected, but these markers could also be used in diagnosis of gynecologic cancer. The potential use of mammaglobin A as an immunotherapeutic target might be limited, due to the possibility of autoimmune toxicity.
Competing interests
The author(s) declare that they have no competing interests.
Authors' contributions
MZ: participated in design of the study, data analysis, data interpretation and drafted the manuscript; BP: carried out the molecular studies, and critically revised the manuscript; AD: supported with pathological expertise in data interpretation and critically revised the manuscript; FF: established and performed the mammaglobin A immunohistochemistry analysis; GK: pathologist that analyzed the mammaglobin A immunohistochemistry study and critically revised the manuscript; RK: participated in design and coordination of the study, and critically revised the manuscript; ED conceived the study, participated in study design and coordination, molecular and data analysis, data interpretation and drafting of the manuscript.