Background
Methods
Study setting and participants
Research tools
Socio-demographic status
Physical activity
Dietary intake
Anthropometry
Validity and reliability
Pilot study
Data analyses
Ethical approval
Results
Lower | Upper-lower | Middle | Lower-upper | Upper | Total | Chi-square P value | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cereals/roots
| |||||||
Rice | 62.7 | 68.9 | 90.5 | 83.3 | 80.6 | 76.9 | p <0.001** |
Maize porridge | 76.0 | 63.5 | 83.3 | 75.7 | 30.6 | 70.0 | p <0.001** |
Maize whole | 72.0 | 54.1 | 67.6 | 55.4 | 33.3 | 57.0 | p = 0.114 |
Potato chips | 26.5 | 50.0 | 48.6 | 60.8 | 63.9 | 28.2 | p <0.001** |
Mandazi | 68.0 | 63.5 | 36.5 | 29.7 | 8.3 | 45.0 | p <0.001** |
Dairy products
| |||||||
Whole cows milk | 93.3 | 89.2 | 93.2 | 93.2 | 91.7 | 92.2 | p = 0.659 |
Yogurt | 9.3 | 18.9 | 28.4 | 52.7 | 66.7 | 31.5 | p <0.001** |
Ice-cream | 2.7 | 9.5 | 28.4 | 45.9 | 63.9 | 26.1 | p <0.001** |
Meat & eggs
| |||||||
Beef | 70.7 | 74.3 | 83.8 | 93.2 | 83.3 | 80.8 | p <0.001** |
Fish | 78.0 | 62.2 | 43.2 | 48.6 | 75.0 | 58.6 | p <0.001** |
Chicken | 38.7 | 28.4 | 55.4 | 67.6 | 69.4 | 49.8 | p <0.001** |
Eggs | 45.3 | 59.5 | 58.1 | 74.3 | 77.8 | 61.3 | p <0.001** |
Legumes & nuts
| |||||||
Dry beans | 58.7 | 60.8 | 82.4 | 67.6 | 33.3 | 63.7 | p <0.001** |
Groundnuts | 57.3 | 62.2 | 58.1 | 59.5 | 77.8 | 38.7 | p = 0.672 |
Sugar, sweetened drinks & treats
| |||||||
Added sugar | 97.3 | 93.2 | 94.6 | 87.7 | 86.1 | 92.5 | p <0.006* |
Biscuits | 13.3 | 35.1 | 28.4 | 39.2 | 58.3 | 32.1 | p <0.001** |
Sweets | 18.7 | 35.1 | 33.8 | 36.5 | 25.0 | 30.3 | p = 0.007* |
Sweet drinks | 52.0 | 56.8 | 75.7 | 68.9 | 63.9 | 63.4 | p = 0.006* |
Alcohol | 12.0 | 17.6 | 17.6 | 47.3 | 72.2 | 28.8 | p <0.001** |
Spreads (fats) | |||||||
Margarine | 40.0 | 47.3 | 77.0 | 39.2 | 16.7 | 47.1 | p <0.001** |
Butter | 0.4 | 1.4 | 12.2 | 29.7 | 47.2 | 15.0 | p <0.001** |
Fruits/vegetables
| |||||||
Bananas | 68.0 | 75.7 | 86.5 | 89.2 | 83.3 | 80.2 | p <0.001** |
Apples | 14.7 | 27.0 | 33.8 | 56.8 | 75.0 | 37.5 | p <0.001** |
Kale | 90.7 | 94.6 | 82.4 | 74.3 | 50.0 | 81.7 | p <0.001** |
Cabbage | 90.7 | 67.6 | 71.6 | 91.9 | 88.9 | 75.7 | p <0.001** |
Mean BMI (SD) | Mean% body fat (SD) | Mean WC (SD) | |
---|---|---|---|
Mean | 27.9 (5.3) | 39.5 (7.6) | 86.9 (13.5) |
Age (years)
| P <0.001c
| P <0.001 c
| P <0.001 c
|
25-29 | 25.6 (5.0) | 35.7 (6.6) | 80.7 (11.2 |
30-34 | 28.1 (4.4) | 39.3 (6.3) | 86.0 (11.0) |
35-39 | 28.7 (4.6) | 40.8 (6.7) | 87.7 (8.7) |
40-44 | 28.9 (5.5) | 41.7 (7.5) | 90.1 (9.1) |
45-49 | 28.8 (6.5) | 41.2 (7.8) | 90.9 (18.4) |
50-54 | 31.8 (4.7) | 46.6 (7.8) | 99.5 (14.6) |
Socio-economic group
| P = 0.005b
| P = 0.021a
| P = 0.083 |
Lower | 26.4 (5.2) | 37.6 (6.8) | 86.1 (12.2) |
Upper-lower | 27.6 (4.8) | 39.2(7.9) | 85.9 (12.2) |
Middle | 27.7 (4.9) | 39.3(7.8) | 84.5 (11.8) |
Lower-upper | 29.5 (%.3) | 41.1(7.1) | 90.3 (14.7) |
Upper | 29.1 (6.3) | 42.1 (8.3) | 88.8 (17.7) |
Marital status
| P = 0.01a
| P = 0.06 | P <0.001 c
|
Single | 26.1 (4.8) | 37.8 (8.0) | 82.4 (11.9) |
Married | 28.3 (5.4) | 39.9 (7.1) | 87.6 (13.2) |
Divorced/separated | 30.1 (4.8) | 42.5 (8.9) | 93.0 (16.2) |
Widowed | 29.5 (4.7) | 41.1 (8.5) | 93.0 (14.3) |
Parity
| P <0.001 c
| P <0.001 c
| P <0.001 c
|
0-1 child | 26.4 (5.0) | 37.6 (7.3) | 82.5 (12.8) |
2-3children | 28.1 (4.6) | 39.8 (6.6) | 86.5 (11.5) |
> = 4 children | 30.0 (5.8) | 42.1 (8.8) | 94.3 (14.2) |
Education level
| P = 0.744 | P = 0.764 | P = 0.123 |
None | 27.7 (5.3) | 40.1 (8.9) | 89.1 (15.2) |
Primary | 28.4 (5.4) | 39.9 (7.3) | 89.0 (13.1) |
Secondary | 27.6 (6.4) | 38.7 (8.8) | 85.8(14.9) |
>Secondary | 27.8 (4.7) | 39.5 (6.9) | 85.3 (12.4) |
Occupation
| P = 0.366 | P = 0.471 | P = 0.314 |
Casual worker | 26.9 (6.3) | 37.4 (7.9) | 86.6 (15.7) |
Self employed | 28.7 (5.3) | 40.3 (7.5) | 89.2 (13.5) |
Formal sector | 27.7 (4.8) | 39.4 (6.9) | 85.5 (12.3) |
Housewife | 27.6 (5.5) | 39.7 (8.4) | 86.1 (13.7) |
Other | 26.9(6.0) | 38.0 (10.1) | 86.0 (17.3) |
Number rooms
| P <0.001 c
| P <.0.001 c
| P <0.001 c
|
1-2 | 26.8 (5.4) | 37.6 (7.0) | 84.9 (12.4) |
3-4 | 27.8 (4.6) | 40.0 (7.0) | 85.4 (11.5) |
5-6 | 30.3 (5.4) | 42.7 (7.6) | 92.6 (15.4) |
> = 7 | 28.9 (5.2) | 40.9 (8.5) | 90.7 (16.2) |
Expenditure (Ksh)
| P <0.001 c
| P <0.001 c
| P = 0.014a
|
<10 000 | 26.2 (5.1) | 37.2 (7.7) | 83.8 (12.7) |
10 001–20 000 | 28.1 (5.3) | 39.8 (7.2) | 86.8 (12.5) |
20 001–30 000 | 28.9 (4.8) | 41.4 (7.5) | 88.8 (12.4) |
30 001–40 000 | 29.4 (5.6) | 40.4 (8.1) | 91.7 (16.7) |
> = 40 000 | 29.7 (4.9) | 42.3 (6.7) | 89.4 (14.7) |
Lower | Upper-lower | Middle | Lower-upper | Upper | Total | Chi-square | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
PAL | N (%) | N (%) | N (%) | N (%) | N (%) | N (%) | |
High | 61 (32) | 44 (23) | 45 (23) | 28 (15) | 14 (7) | 192 (58) | P <0.001a
|
Moderate | 7 (10) | 17 (28) | 13 (19) | 16 (24) | 12 (18) | 67 (20) | |
Low | 7 (10) | 11 (15) | 16 (22) | 29 (40) | 10 (14) | 73 (22) | |
Sedentary time per day
| |||||||
< 5 hours | 31 (37) | 19 (22) | 16 (19) | 13 (15) | 6 (7) | 85 (26) | P <0.001a
|
5-10 hours | 23 (18) | 35 (27) | 33 (25) | 20 (15) | 19 (15) | 130 (39) | |
>10 hours | 21 (18) | 20 (17) | 25 (21) | 40 (34) | 11 (9) | 117 (35) |
Mean BMI (SD) | Mean% body fat (SD) | Mean WC (SD) | |
---|---|---|---|
Mean | 27.9 (5.3) | 39.5 (7.6) | 86.9 (13.5) |
PAL
| P <0.001c
| P = 0.004b
| 0.040a
|
High | 27.0 (5.1) | 38.6 (7.1) | 85.4 (12.9) |
Moderate | 28.4 (5.6) | 39.5 (7.3) | 88.6 (13.8) |
Low | 29.9 (4.9) | 42.1 (8.5) | 89.6 (14.1) |
Sedentary time
| P = 0.014a
| P = 0.126 | P = 0.137 |
< 5 hours/day | 27.2 (5.4) | 39.5 (7.5) | 86.5 (13.7) |
5-10 | 27.7 (5.1) | 38.8 (7.5) | 85.9 (13.2) |
>10 | 29.4 (5.1) | 41.1 (7.9) | 89.7 (13.4) |
Lower | Upper-lower | Middle | Lower-upper | Upper | Total | Chi-square p values | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Energy% DRI | 115.3a
| 116.5 a
| 113.2a
| 129.5 a
| 113.9 a
| 117.9 | 0.430 |
50.1 | 44.3 | 56.9 | 63.1 | 66.7 | 55.4 | ||
Protein% DRI | 160.3 | 153.7 a
| 177.6 a
| 206.7 | 208.9 | 177.8 | 0.034d
|
SD | 99.8 | 66.3 | 94.4 | 104.6 | 259.3 | 123.2 | |
Fat% DRI | 73.1 a
| 80.9 a
| 89.2 a
| 93.8 a
| 77.2 a
| 83.1 | 0.13 |
SD | 37.5 | 65.7 | 49.3 | 53.2 | 46.4 | 52.0 | |
CHO% DRI | 99.8 a
| 101.5 a
| 91.3 a
| 88.0 a
| 71.4 | 92.7 | 0.016 d
|
SD | 44.3 | 41.2 | 56.9 | 44.1 | 48.9 | 47.9 | |
Fibre% DRI | 150.7 a
| 146.3 a
| 116.1 a
| 104.2 | 82.5 | 124.6 | <0.001f
|
SD | 74.1 | 76.8 | 115.2 | 103.2 | 76.9 | 94.5 | |
PUFA% DRI | 137.4 a
| 166.0 a
| 179.5 | 171.8 | 123.5 a
| 159.1 | 0.078 |
SD | 102.6 | 119.3 | 112.9 | 159.3 | 94.5 | 122.5 | |
Cholesterol DRI | 152.2 a
| 147.9 a
| 185.2 | 219.4 | 97.1 a
| 166.7 | 0.011d
|
SD | 166.9 | 146.0 | 185.0 | 223.6 | 165.9 | 182.7 | |
Alcohol mean (g) SD | 1.8 a
| 0.7 a
| 1.1 a
| 45.3 | 78.2 | 18.8 | <0.001f
|
11.9 | 6.2 | 9.2 | 127.2 | 239.8 | 101.6 |
Mean BMI (SD) | Mean% body fat (SD) | Mean WC (SD) | |
---|---|---|---|
Mean (SD) | 27.9 (5.3) | 39.5 (7.6) | 86.9 (13.5) |
Energy (mean DRI) | P = 0.301 | P = 0.717 | P = 0.775 |
<100% | 27.6 (5.3) | 39.4 (8.0) | 86.6 (14.6) |
>100% | 28.2 (5.2) | 39.7(7.2) | 87.1 (12.7) |
Protein (mean DRI) | P = 0.013a
| P = 0.004 b
| P = 0.064 |
<100% | 26.5 (5.1) | 37.2 (8.3) | 84.0 (13.9) |
>100% | 28.2 (5.1) | 40.1 (7.3) | 87.0 (12.9) |
Fat (mean DRI) | P = 0.012 a
| P = 0.174 | P = 0.201 |
<100% | 27.5 (5.2) | 39.2 (7.8) | 86.3 (13.5) |
>100% | 29.1 (5.3) | 40.5 (7.3) | 88.4 (13.7) |
CHO (mean DRI) | P = 0.232 | P = 0.309 | P = 0.695 |
<100% | 27.7 (5.4) | 39.2 (7.9) | 86.6 (14.4) |
>100% | 28.4 (5.1) | 40.1 (7.1) | 87.3 (11.7) |
BMI | % Body fat | Waist circumference | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Predictor variables | β | P | β | P | β | P |
Age | 0.177 | 0.008a
| 0.378 | <0.001 a
| 0.237 | <0.001 a
|
% DRI fat | −0.122 | 0.024 a
| −0.021 | 0.689 | −0.040 | 0.447 |
Total PA | 0.115 | 0.026 a
| 0.093 | 0.071 | 0.075 | 0.132 |
Parity | 0.209 | 0.002a
| 0.081 | 0.211 | 0.237 | <0.001 a
|
SE group | 0.144 | 0.015 a
| 0.004 | 0.966 | −0.036 | 0.660 |
No. of assets | 0.055 | 0.534 | 0.139 | 0.007** | 0.007 a
| 0.922 |
No. rooms | 0.031 | 0.710 | 0.032 | 0.666 | 0.125 | 0.022 a
|
R2
|