Background
PMD from lemon eucalyptus (Corymbia citriodora) extract
Plant | Location | Other names | Repellent compound(s) | Tested mode of use | Repellency % protection | Study type | Ref |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
MYRTACEAE | |||||||
Corymbia citriodora
| Australia Brazil Bolivia China India Ethiopia Tanzania Kenya | lemon eucalyptus lemon scented gum quwenling | citronellal PMD (by product of hidrodistillation) (p-menthane-3,8-diol) citronellol limonene geraniol isopulegol δ-pinene | 30% PMD applied topically | 96.88% protection from mosquitoes for 4 hours | field study in Bolivia | [45] |
PMD towelette (0.575g) applied topically | 90% protection from An. arabiensis for 6 hours | laboratory study | [112] | ||||
50% PMD applied topically | 100% protection from An gambiae and An. funestus for 6-7 hours | field study in Tanzania | [113] | ||||
20% PMD (1.7 mg/cm2) applied topically | 100% protection for 11-12 hours against A. stephensi | laboratory study | [64] | ||||
20% PMD applied topically | 100% protection against Ae. Aegypti for 120 minutes | Laboratory study | [52] | ||||
thermal expulsion (leaves) | 78.7 % protection from An. arabiensis 76.8% protection from An. pharaoensis | field study in Ethiopia | [114] | ||||
direct burning (leaves) | 70.1 % protection from An. arabiensis 72.9% protection from An. pharaoensis | field study in Ethiopia | [114] | ||||
periodic thermal expulsion (leaves) | 74.5% protection from An. gambiae s.s. | semi-field study in Kenya | [62] | ||||
periodic direct burning (leaves) | 51.3% protection from An. gambiae s.s. | semi-field study in Kenya | [62] | ||||
thermal expulsion (leaves) | 48.71% protection from An. gambiae s.l. | field study in Kenya | [115] | ||||
Eucalyptus spp. | Guinea-Bissau Ethiopia Tanzania Portugal | eucalyptus | 1,8-cineole citronellal Z- and α- citral α-pinene | thermal expulsion (leaves) | 72.2% protection from mosquitoes for 2 hours | field study in Guinea Bissau | [116] |
E. camaldulensis
| Ethiopia | thermal expulsion (leaves) | 71.9 % protection from An. arabiensis 72.2% protection from An. pharaoensis | field study in Ethiopia | [114] | ||
direct burning (leaves) | 65.3 % protection from An. arabiensis 66.6% protection from An. pharaoensis | field study in Ethiopia | [114] | ||||
Eugenia caryophyllus or Syzygium aromaticum or Eugenia aromaticu | India | clove lavang cravinho-da-india | Eugenol carvacrol thymol cinnamaldehyde | 100% essential oil applied topically | 100% protection against Ae. aegypti for 225 minutes 100% protection against An. albimanus for 213 minutes | laboratory study | [65] |
100% essential oil applied topically | 100% protection against Ae. aegypti for 120 min. 100% protection against C. quinquefasciatus for 240 min. 100% protection against An. dirus for 210 min. | laboratory study | [31] | ||||
VERBENACEAE | |||||||
Lippia spp. | Kenya Tanzania Ghana Zimbabwe | lemon bush | myrcene linalool α-pinene eucalyptol | ||||
L. javanica
| alloparinol camphor limonene α –terpeneol verbenone | 5mg/cm2 plant extract applied topically | 100% protection against Ae. aegypti for 8 hours | laboratory study | [117] | ||
alcohol plant extract applied topically | 76.7% protection against An arabiensis for 4 hours | laboratory study | [118] | ||||
L. uckambensis
| fever tea | potted plant | 33.3% protection against An. gambiae s.s | semi-field study in Kenya | [119] | ||
periodic thermal expulsion (leaves) | 45.9% protection against An. gambiae s.s. | semi-field system in Kenya | [62] | ||||
periodic direct burning (leaves) | 33.4% protection against An. gambiae s.s | semi-field system in Kenya | [62] | ||||
potted plant | 25.01% protection against An.gambiae s.l | field study in Kenya | [115] | ||||
L. cheraliera
| eucalyptol caryophyllene ipsdienone p-cymene | ||||||
Lantana camara
| Kenya Tanzania | lantana spanish flag West Indian lantana Wild sage | caryophylene | potted plant | 32.4% protection against An. gambiae s.s | semi-field study in Kenya | [119] |
potted plant | 27.22% protection against An. gambiae s.l. | field study in Kenya | [115] | ||||
flower extract in coconut oil | 94.5% protection against Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus for one hour | laboratory study | [120] | ||||
periodic thermal expulsion (leaves) | 42.4% protection against An. gambiae s.s | semi-field study in Kenya | [62] | ||||
LAMIACEAE | |||||||
Ocimum spp. O.americanum | Kenya Tanzania Zimbabwe Nigeria Ghana Cameroon Eritrea Ethiopia (…) | Tree basil nchu avum lime basil kivumbasi Myeni madongo African blue basil hairy basil | p-cymene estragosl linalool linoleic acid eucalyptol eugenol camphor citral thujone limonene ocimene and others | potted plant | 39.70% protection against An. gambiae s.s | semi-field study in Kenya | [119] |
potted plant | 37.91% protection against An. gambiae s.l. | field study in Kenya | [115] | ||||
fresh plants combined with O. suave bruised and applied topically | 50% protection against An. gambiae s.l. | field study in Tanzania | [121] | ||||
periodic thermal expulsion (leaves and seeds) | 43.1.% protection against An gambiae s.s | semi-field study in Kenya | [62] | ||||
periodic direct burning (leaves and seeds) | 20.9% protection against An. gambiae s.s | semi-field study in Kenya | [62] | ||||
100% essential oil combined with vanillin 5% applied topically | 100% protection against Ae. aegypti for 6.5 hours1 100% protection against C. quinquefasciatus for 8 hours 100% protection against An. dirus for 8 hours | laboratory study | [34] | ||||
O. suave
| thermal expulsion (leaves) | 73.6 % protection from An. arabiensis 75.1% protection from An. pharaoensis | field study in Ethiopia | [114] | |||
direct burning (leaves) | 71.5 % protection from An. arabiensis 79.7% protection from An. pharaoensis | field study in Ethiopia | [114] | ||||
periodic thermal expulsion (leaves and seeds) | 53.1% protection from An. gambiae s.s. | semi-field study in Kenya | [62] | ||||
periodic direct burning (leaves and seeds) | 28.0% protection from An. gambiae s.s. | semi-field study in Kenya | [62] | ||||
O. basilicum
| thermal expulsion (leaves) | 78.7 % protection from An. arabiensis 79.2% protection from An. pharaoensis | field study in Ethiopia | [114] | |||
direct burning (leaves) | 73.1 % protection from An. arabiensis 70.0% protection from An. pharaoensis | field study in Ethiopia | [114] | ||||
100% essential oil applied topically | 100% protection for 70 minutes | laboratory study | [31] | ||||
O. kilimandscharikum
| thermal expulsion (leaves and seeds) | 44.54% protection against An. gambiae s.l. | field study in Kenya | [115] | |||
thermal expulsion (leaves and seeds) | 37.63% protection against An. funestus | field study in Kenya | [115] | ||||
periodic thermal expulsion (leaves and seeds) | 52.0% protection against An. gambiae s.s. | semi-field study in Kenya | [62] | ||||
periodic direct burning (leaves and seeds) | 26.4% protection against An. gambiae s.s | semi-field study in Kenya | [62] | ||||
O. forskolei
| fresh plants hung indoors | 53% protection against mosquitoes entering human dwelling | field study in Eritrea | [122] | |||
Hyptis spp. Hyptis suaveolens
| Kenya Tanzania Ghana The Gambiae | bushmint wild hops wild spikenard hangazimu hortelã-do-campo | myrcene | smouldering on charcoal | 85.4% repellency against mosquitoes for 2 hours | field study in Guinea Bissau | [116] |
fresh leaves | 73.2% repellency against mosquitoes for 2 hours | field study in Guinea Bissau | [116] | ||||
periodic direct burning (leaves and flowers) | 20.8% repellency against An. gambiae s.s | semi-field study in Kenya | [62] | ||||
Mentha spp. M. piperata | Brazil Bolivia | hortelã-do-campo peppermint | 100% essential oil applied topically | 100% protection against Ae. aegypti for 45 minutes | laboratory study | [65] | |
M. arvensis
| menta Japanese mint | 100% essential oil volatilized in a kerosene lamp | 41% protection indoors against Mansonia spp | field study in Bolivia | [17] | ||
Thymus spp. Th. vulgaris | China Former Soviet Union Korea Middle-East Mediterranean | thyme | α-terpinene carvacrol thymol p-cymene linalool geraniol | α-terpinene topically | 97.3% protection against Culex pipiens sallens for 82 min | laboratory study | [123] |
carvacrol topically | 94.7% protection against C. pipiens sallens for 80 min | ||||||
thymol topically | 91.8% protection against C. pipiens sallens for 70 min | laboratory study | [123] | ||||
linalool topically | 91.7% protection agains C. pipiens sallens for 65 min | ||||||
p-cymene | 89.0% protection agains C. pipiens sallens for 45.2 min | ||||||
100% essential oil applied topically | 100% protection against An. albimanus for 105 minutes and Ae. aegypti for 135 minutes | laboratory study | [65] | ||||
direct burning (leaves) | 85-09% protection for 60-90 min | field study | [20] | ||||
Pogostemon spp.
| China | Patchouli | 100% essential oil applied | 100% protection against Ae. aegypti for 120 min | laboratory study | [31] | |
Pogostemon cablin
| India Malaysia Thailand | Oriza | topically | 100% protection against C. quinquefasciatus for 150 min 100% protection against An. dirus for 710 minutes | |||
POACEAE | |||||||
Cymbopogon spp. | China India Indonesia | ||||||
C. nardus
| Brazil | citronellal | 40% essential oil applied topically | 100% protection for 7-8 hours against An. stephensi | laboratory study | [64] | |
100% essential oil applied topically | 100% protection against Ae. aegypti for 120 min 100% protection against C. quinquefasciatus for 100 min 100% protection against An. dirus for 70 minutes | laboratory study | [31] | ||||
10% applied topically | 100% protection against Ae. aegypti for 20 minutes | laboratory study | [52] | ||||
C. martini
| Tanzania Kenya | palmarosa | geraniol | topically (100% essential oil) | 100% protection against An. culicifacies for 12 hours 96.3% protection against C. quinquefasciatus for 12 hours | field study in India | [124] |
topically (100% essential oil) | 98.8% protection against C. quinquefasciatus for 10 hours | laboratory study | [124] | ||||
C. citratus
| USA South África Bolívia | lemongrass oil grass | citral α-pinene | topically | 74% protection against An. darlingi for 2.5h 95% protection against Mansonia spp. for 2.5 hours | field study in Bolivia | [17] |
Methanol leaf extract applied topically (2.5mg/m2) | 78.8 % protection against An. arabiensis for 12 hours | laboratory study | [125] | ||||
100% essential oil applied topically | 100% protection for 30 minutes | laboratory study | [31] | ||||
C. winterianius
| 100% essential oil combined with vanillin 5% applied topically | 100% protection against Ae. aegypti for 6.5 hours 100% protection against C. quinquefasciatus for 8 hours 100% protection against An. dirus for 8 hours | laboratory study | [34] | |||
C. excavatus
| alcohol plant extract applied topically | 66.7% protection against An. arabiensis for 3 hours | laboratory study | [118] | |||
Pelargonium reniforme
| rose geranium | alcohol plant extract applied topically | 63.3 protection against An. arabiensis for 3 hours | laboratory study | [118] | ||
MELIACEAE | |||||||
Azadirachta indica
| India Sri Lanka China Brazil Bolívia Pakistan Ethiopia Guinea Bissau Kenya Tanzania (…) | Neem | azadirachtin saponins | direct burning (leaves) | 76.0% protection from mosquitoes for 2 hours | field study in Guinea Bissau | [116] |
periodic thermal expulsion (leaves) | 24.5% protection from An. gambiae s.s | semi-field study in Kenya | [62] | ||||
1% neem oil volatilized in a kerosene lamp | 94.2% protection from Anopheles spp. 80% protection from Culex spp. | field study in India | [126] | ||||
2% neem oil applied topically | 56.75% protection from mosquitoes for 4 hours | field study in Bolivia | [45] | ||||
ASTERACEAE | |||||||
Tagetes minuta
| Uganda Zimbabwe India | Khaki weed | topically | 86.4% protection againt An. stepehensi for 6 hours | laboratory study | [127] | |
topically | 84.2% protection against C. quinquefasciatus for 6 hours | laboratory study | [127] | ||||
topically | 75% protection against Ae. aegypti for 6 hours | laboratory study | [127] | ||||
fresh leaves (4Kg) | reduced human landings indoors | field study in Uganda | [128] | ||||
Artemisia spp.
A. vulgaris
| India Egypt Italy Canada USA | mugwort wormwood St. Johns plant Old uncle henry Sailors tobacco | camphor linalool terpenen-4-ol α-and β-thujone β-pinene | ||||
A. monosperma
| Siberia Brazil | Felon herb Naughty man | myrcene limonene cineol | 5% leave extract applied topically | 100 % protection for 4 hours | field study in Egypt | 112 |
CAESALPINIACEAE | |||||||
Daniellia oliveri
| Guinea-Bissau The Gambiae | churai santão santang santango | direct burning (bark) | 77.9% protection against mosquitoes for 2 hours | field study in Guinea Bissau | [116] | |
direct burning (bark) | 77% protection against mosquitoes | field study in The Gambiae | [130] | ||||
FABACEAE
Glycine max
| Worldwide | Soya | 2% soya bean oil | 100% protection against Ae. aegypti for 95 minutes | laboratoty study | [52] | |
RUTACEAE
Zanthoxylum limonella
| Thailand | makaen | 100% essential oil applied topically | 100% protection against Ae. aegypti for 120 min 100% protection against C. quinquefasciatus for 170 min | laboratory study | [31] | |
10% essential oil combined with 10% clove oil | 100% protection against An. dirus for 190 minutes | laboratory study | [64] | ||||
Citrus hystrix
| Indonesia Malaysia Thailand Laos | Kaffir lime Limau purut | 100% essential oil combined with vanillin 5% applied topically | 100% protection against An. stephensi for 8 hours 100% protection against Ae. aegypti for 3 hours 100% protection against C. quinquefasciatus for 1.5 hours 100% protection against An. dirus for 2.5 hours | laboratory study | [34] | |
ZINGIBERACEAE
Curcuma longa
| Turmeric Curcuma Indian saffron | 100% essential oil combined with vanillin 5% applied topically | 100% protection against Ae. aegypti for 4.5 hours 100% protection against C. quinquefasciatus for 8 hours 100% protection against An. dirus for 8 hours | laboratory study | [34] |
Citronella
Neem
Natural oils and emulsions
Essential oils
Common Name | Scientific Name | Safe Concentration | Hazard |
---|---|---|---|
Anise |
Pimpinella anisum
| 3.6% | Based on 0.11% methyl eugenol; carcinogen |
Basil | Ocimum sp | 0.07% | Based on 6% methyl eugenol; carcinogen |
Bergamot |
Citrus aurantium bergamia
| 0.4% | Sensitising and phototoxic; skin irritant |
Cajeput |
Melaleuca alternifolia
| 0.004% | Based on 97% methyl eugenol; carcinogen |
Cedar |
Chamaecyparis nootkatensis
| 1% | Likely allergenic contaminants if nootkatone not 98% pure |
Cassia |
Cinnamonium cassia
| 0.2% or 9% | Sensitising skin irritant |
Citronella |
Cymbopogon nardus
| 2% | Safety is controversial; based on 0.2% methyl eugenol or 1.3% citral; sensitising skin irritant |
Citronella (Java) |
Cymbopogon winterianius
| 2% | Based on 0.2% methyl eugenol; carcinogen |
Citrus oils | Citrus sp | 16-25% | Based on 0.005%-0.0025% bergapten; phototoxic skin irritant |
Clove |
Syzyguim aromaticum
| 0.5% | Based on 92% eugenol; sensitising skin irritant |
Fever tea, lemon bush |
Lippia javanica
| 2% | Based on 5% citral in related species; sensitising skin irritant |
Geranium |
Pelargonium graveolens
| 6% | Based on 1.5% citral; sensitising skin irritant |
Ginger | Zingiber sp | 12% | Based on 0.8% citral; sensitising skin irritant |
Huon oil, Macquarie pine |
Langarostrobus franklini
| 0.004% | Based on 98% methyl eugenol; carcinogen |
Lemongrass |
Cymbopogon citratus
| 0.1% | Based on 90% citral; sensitising skin irritant |
Lime |
Citrus aurantifolia
| 0.7% | Phototoxic skin irritant |
Litsea |
Litsea cubeba
| 0.1% | Based on 78% citral; sensitising skin irritant |
Marigold |
Tagates minuta
| 0.01% | Phototoxic skin irritant |
Mexican tea, American wormseed |
Chenopodium ambrosioides
| Prohibited | Toxic |
Mint |
Mentha piperata and spicata
| 2% | Based on 0.1% trans-2-hexenal; sensitising skin irritant |
Nutmeg |
Myristica fragrans
| 0.4% | Based on 1% methyl eugenol; carcinogen |
Palmarosa |
Cymbopogon martini
| 16% | Based on 1.2% farnesol; sensitizing skin irritant |
Pennyroyal | Mentha pulegium or Hedeoma pulegioides | Prohibited | Toxic |
Pine |
Pinus sylvestris
| Prepare with antioxidants | Oxidation creates phototoxic skin irritants |
Rosemary |
Rosemarinus officinalis
| 36% | Based on 0.011% methyl eugenol; carcinogen |
Rue |
Ruta chalepensis
| 0.15% | Based on presence of psoralenes; phototoxic skin irritant |
Thyme |
Thymus vulgaris
| 2% | Based on 0.1% trans-2-hexenal; sensitising skin irritant |
Violet |
Viola odorata
| 2% | Based on 0.1% trans-2-hexenal; sensitising skin irritant |
Ylang-ylang |
Canagium odoratum
| 2% | Based on 4% farnesol; sensitizing skin irritant |
Considerations for repellent testing methodology
WHOPES approved repellent testing methodology |
---|
Laboratory Testing
|
Use 20% deet in ethanol as a positive comparison |
Human subjects preferable to reflect the end user |
Before the test the test area of skin should be washed with unscented soap then rinsed with 70% ethanol / isopropyl alcohol |
Mosquitoes should be reared under standard 27 ± 2 C temperature, ≥80 ± 10% relative humidity, and a 12:12 (light:dark) photoperiod. |
Mosquitoes should be 3 to 5 days old, nulliparous females, starved for 12 hours preceding the test |
Tests should be conducted with three or more species |
40 x 40 x 40 cm cages with 50 – 100 mosquitoes for effective dose testing |
40 x 40 x 40 cm cages with 200 - 250 mosquitoes for complete protection time testing |
Control arms should be used to estimate mosquito readiness to feed |
Treatment arms should be offered to mosquitoes after avidity has been measured |
Field Testing
|
Use 20% deet in ethanol as a positive comparison |
Human subjects preferable to reflect the end user |
Before the test the test area of skin should be washed with unscented soap then rinsed with 70% ethanol / isopropyl alcohol |
Volunteers should sit >20 metres apart |
Design should be completely randomised |
Trials should be conducted with medium biting pressures of representative vector species |
All participants should be recruited on informed consent from the local area and be provided with malaria prophylaxis |
In all testing monitoring of adverse effects should be carried out |