Skip to main content
Erschienen in: Malaria Journal 1/2006

Open Access 01.12.2006 | Research

Detection and clinical manifestation of placental malaria in southern Ghana

verfasst von: Frank P Mockenhaupt, George Bedu-Addo, Christiane von Gaertner, Renate Boyé, Katrin Fricke, Iris Hannibal, Filiz Karakaya, Marieke Schaller, Ulrike Ulmen, Patrick A Acquah, Ekkehart Dietz, Teunis A Eggelte, Ulrich Bienzle

Erschienen in: Malaria Journal | Ausgabe 1/2006

Abstract

Background

Plasmodium falciparum can be detected by microscopy, histidine-rich-protein-2 (HRP2) capture test or PCR but the respective clinical relevance of the thereby diagnosed infections in pregnant women is not well established.

Methods

In a cross-sectional, year-round study among 839 delivering women in Agogo, Ghana, P. falciparum was screened for in both, peripheral and placental blood samples, and associations with maternal anaemia, low birth weight (LBW) and preterm delivery (PD) were analysed.

Results

In peripheral blood, P. falciparum was observed in 19%, 34%, and 53% by microscopy, HRP2 test, and PCR, respectively. For placental samples, these figures were 35%, 41%, and 59%. Irrespective of diagnostic tool, P. falciparum infection increased the risk of anaemia. Positive peripheral blood results of microscopy and PCR were not associated with LBW or PD. In contrast, the HRP2 test performed well in identifying women at increased risk of poor pregnancy outcome, particularly in case of a negative peripheral blood film. Adjusting for age, parity, and antenatal visits, placental HRP2 was the only marker of infection associated with LBW (adjusted odds ratio (aOR), 1.5 (95%CI, 1.0–2.2)) and, at borderline statistical significance, PD (aOR, 1.4 (1.0–2.1)) in addition to anaemia (aOR, 2.3 (1.7–3.2)). Likewise, HRP2 in peripheral blood of seemingly aparasitaemic women was associated with PD (aOR, 1.7 (1.0–2.7)) and anaemia (aOR, 2.1 (1.4–3.2)).

Conclusion

Peripheral blood film microscopy not only underestimates placental malaria. In this highly endemic setting, it also fails to identify malaria as a cause of foetal impairment. Sub-microscopic infections detected by a HRP2 test in seemingly aparasitaemic women increase the risks of anaemia and PD. These findings indicate that the burden of malaria in pregnancy may be even larger than thought and accentuate the need for effective anti-malarial interventions in pregnancy.
Hinweise

Authors' contributions

FPM, GBA, and UB designed the study. CvG, RB, KF, IH, FK, MS, UU, FPM and PAA were responsible for patient recruitment, and clinical and parasitological examinations. ED and FPM did the statistical analyses; TAE measured drug concentrations. FPM wrote the paper with major contributions of the other authors.

Background

Malaria in pregnancy continues to be a major public health problem in sub-Saharan Africa. Pregnant women are a specific risk group for Plasmodium falciparum infection, malaria and related consequences [1]. This increased risk is partially due to physiological alterations of immunity. Moreover, in pregnancy and by virtue of specific expression variants of the P. falciparum Erythrocyte Membrane Protein-1, parasite strains adhere to the syncytiotrophoblast, i.e. the surface lining the placental intervillous space. As immune recognition of and, thus, response to these parasites are low in primigravidae susceptibility and clinical manifestation are increased. With subsequent pregnancies, protective immune mechanisms gradually develop and expand, and manifestation of infection declines [24].
The placental sequestration of P. falciparum results in the accumulation of parasitized erythrocytes in the intervillous space, infiltration by inflammatory cells and release of pro-inflammatory mediators [5]. Clinical consequences of placental malaria, i.e. parasites and/or malaria pigment (haemozoin) present in placental blood, comprise maternal anaemia, low birth weight (LBW), preterm delivery (PD), and, consequently, increased perinatal and infant mortality [1, 69]. In highly endemic regions, infected women are commonly asymptomatic [10]. Because of placental sequestration, peripheral blood film microscopy grossly underestimates the prevalence of placental malaria [11, 12].
As with malaria in children, the prevalence and manifestation of malaria in pregnancy varies with transmission intensity, access to treatment, coverage and quality of antenatal services, and drug resistance, among others. The role of sub-microscopic P. falciparum infections, i.e. below the threshold of peripheral blood microscopy, is not well established [10, 11, 1316]. The present study aimed at assessing prevalence and clinical consequences of P. falciparum infections detected in peripheral and placental blood by microscopy, histidine-rich-protein-2 (HRP2) capture test, and PCR among women delivering at a district hospital in rural southern Ghana. The performances of the diagnostic tests in a subset of 596 women have been reported previously [12]. Here, results from all 839 live-singleton deliveries are reported, focusing on the clinical manifestation of malaria in pregnancy.

Methods

Agogo is a community of some 30,000 inhabitants located in the forested hills of Ashanti Akim North District. Subsistence farming, trade and mining are the main income sources in that region, and malaria is hyper- to holoenedemic [17]. In 1998, P. falciparum among women attending antenatal care at Agogo District Hospital was detected in 32% and 63% by microscopy and PCR assays of peripheral blood samples, respectively [10]. Then and at the time of study, chemoprophylaxis with pyrimethamine (PYR) was recommended in pregnancy; yet, P. falciparum mutations conferring PYR resistance are frequent in the area [18]. From January 2000 to January 2001, women attending Agogo Hospital for delivery were asked to participate in the present study and recruited after informed written consent was obtained. The study protocol was reviewed and approved by the Committee on Human Research Publications and Ethics, School of Medical Sciences, University of Science and Technology, Kumasi.
All women were clinically examined, socio-demographic data were documented, and venous peripheral blood collected into EDTA. Fever was defined as an axillary temperature >37.4°C. Following expulsion and after a small incision had been made into the maternal surface of the placenta, blood from the intervillous space was collected with a syringe containing EDTA. P. falciparum was screened for in both placental and peripheral blood samples by microscopy, HRP2 test, and PCR: malaria parasites were counted microscopically on Giemsa-stained thick blood films per 500 white blood cells for peripheral samples and per 100 high-power fields for placental samples in which the presence of leukocyte-associated haemozoin was also recorded. Based on placental thick blood film microscopy, the stage of placental infection was categorized as [5] early, only parasites visible; late, both parasites and pigment present; resolved, only pigment visible; and none, neither parasites nor haemozoin present. HRP2 was detected by rapid immuno-chromatographic tests (ICT Malaria P.f/P.v, Becton Dickinson, Germany). Following DNA extraction (QIAmp, Qiagen, Germany), nested P. falciparum-specific PCR assays were performed [19]. Plasma concentrations of chloroquine (CQ) and PYR were measured by ELISA assays [20] with limits of detection of 5 ng/mL and 10 ng/mL, respectively. Haemoglobin (Hb) was measured by a HemoCue photometer (Ångelholm, Sweden) and anaemia defined as Hb <11 g/dL. Crude birth weight and gestational age were assessed within 24 hours after delivery. LBW was defined as a birth weight <2500 g and PD as gestational age <37 weeks applying the Finnström score [21].
Geometric mean parasite densities (GMPDs) and 95% confidence intervals (95%CIs) were calculated. Continuous variables were compared between groups by t-test, analysis of variance, Mann-Whitney U test, and Kruskal-Wallis test as applicable. Associations between P. falciparum infection and anaemia, LBW, and PD were identified by χ2 test, odds ratios (ORs) calculated, and adjusted for confounders by logistic regression models.

Results

From January 2000 to January 2001, 889 delivering and consenting women were recruited and 922 babies were born (859 singles; 30 twin pairs, one set of triplets), of whom 22 (2.4%) were born dead or died within 24 hours after delivery. The characteristics of the 839 women with live-singleton deliveries are shown in Table 1. About half of the women originated from Agogo and about half had previously attended ≤3 antenatal care visits. Parity was strongly associated with LBW and PD, rates being more than double in primiparae (each, 26%) than in multiparae (Table 1). Fever was rare (3%). PYR in plasma was detected in 35% (median, 46 ng/mL; range, 11–1000) and CQ in 22% (median, 31 ng/mL; range, 6–1248).
Table 1
Characteristics of 839 women with live singleton deliveries
Parameter
All
Primiparae
Parae II & III
Multiparae (>III)
P
No. (%)
839 (100)
304/832 (36.5)
305/832 (36.7)
223/832 (26.8)
 
Age (years; median, range; n = 827)
25 (15–47)
21 (15–36)
25 (18–40)*
33 (22–47)*
< 0.0001
Residence in Agogo (%, No.)
48.9 (410)
48.7 (148/304)
54.8 (167/305)
41.3 (92/223)
0.009
Proportion without school degree (%, No.)
15.4 (128/829)
8.6 (26/302)
14.6 (44/302)*
26.0 (57/219)*
< 0.0001
Axillary temperature (°C; mean ± SD; n = 826)
36.4 ± 0.5
36.5 ± 0.6
36.4 ± 0.5
36.4 ± 0.5
0.32
Fever (%, No.)
2.8 (23/826)
4.0 (12/300)
1.7 (5/302)
2.7 (6/129)
0.22
Haemoglobin (g/dL; median; range)
11.5 (4.6–16.8)
11.4 (4.6–16.4)
11.6 (5.8–16.8)
11.5 (4.7–15.6)
0.28
Anaemia (haemoglobin <11 g/dL)
35.2 (295)
38.5 (117/304)
32.5 (99/305)
35.0 (78/223)
0.30
No. of previous ANC visits (median, range, n = 821)
4 (0–12)
3 (0–11)
4 (0–12)*
4 (0–10)
0.01
Proportion with ≤3 ANC visits (%, No.)
47.7 (392/821)
52.5 (156/297)
43.1 (129/299)*
47.9 (105/219)
0.07
Caesarean section (%, No.)
22.1 (185)
21.7 (66/304)
19.0 (58/305)
26.5 (59/223)
0.12
Birth weight (g; median, range; n = 838)
2950 (1280–4500)
2785 (1280–4000)
3000 (1600–4250)*
3100 (1500–4500)*
<0.0001
Gestational age (weeks; median, range; n = 831)
38.4 (20.0–43.1)
38.4 (20.0–43.1)
39.0 (32.0–43.1)*
39.4 (27.0–42.1)*
0.0001
Low birth weight (LBW)
16.0 (134/837)
26.0 (79/304)
10.9 (33/304)*
9.4 (21/223)*
< 0.0001
Preterm delivery
18.8 (156/831)
26.3 (80/304)
16.0 (48/300)*
12.2 (27/221)*
< 0.0001
Proportion with chloroquine in plasma (%, No.)
22.4 (182/821)
27.9 (83/298)
19.1 (57/299)*
19.4 (42/217)*
0.02
Proportion with pyrimethamine in plasma (%, No.)
35.0 (287/821)
35.6 (106/298)
33.8 (101/299)
35.9 (78/217)
0.85
*, difference to primiparae, P < 0.05; ANC, antenatal care

Detection and prevalence of Plasmodium falciparum

In all 839 peripheral samples, P. falciparum was detected in 19.0%, 34.1%, and 52.9% by microscopy, HRP2 test, and PCR, respectively. For placental samples, these figures were 34.9%, 40.8%, and 59.4%; placental haemozoin was seen in 30.9%. As reported before [12], sensitivity of peripheral blood film microscopy in detecting placental infection was poor. It was 50% (95%CI, 44–59) and 32% (56–63) taking the results of placental microscopy and PCR assays, respectively, as reference (specificities, 98% (96–99) and 100% (99–100)). For HRP2 tests on peripheral blood samples, these sensitivities were 78% (73–82; specificity, 89% (86–92)) and 56% (51–60; specificity, 98% (95–99)). PCR assays on peripheral samples achieved a sensitivity of 97% (94–99; specificity, 71% (69–75)) for microscopically confirmed placental parasitaemia and of 87% (83–89; specificity, 96% (93–98)) with PCR-proven placental infection as reference. Irrespective of diagnostic technique, P. falciparum declined in prevalence with parity as did placental parasite density (Table 2). Also, the presence of haemozoin decreased with parity and, consequently, late infections predominated in primiparae and early infections in multiparae (Table 2). Non-falciparum species were rare (six Plasmodium malariae, five Plasmodium ovale) and not related to parity.
Table 2
Prevalence of Plasmodium falciparum in 832 delivering women according to parity
Parameter
Prevalence of Plasmodium falciparum (%)
P
 
Primiparae
Parae II & III
Multiparae
 
No.
304
305
223
 
Peripheral blood
    
Diagnosic mean
    
   Microscopy
27.0
16.4*
11.7*
< 0.0001
   HRP2 test
45.4
30.5*
23.8*
< 0.0001
   PCR
59.2
52.1
46.2*
0.01
GMPD (μL, 95%CI)
740 (481–1137)
343 (189–623)*
593 (263–1336)
0.12
Placental blood
    
Diagnostic mean
    
   Microscopy
46.1
33.1*
22.0*
< 0.0001
   Haemozoin
42.4
29.8*
16.6*
< 0.0001
   HRP2 test
50.7
37.4*
32.3*
< 0.0001
   PCR
65.1
59.7
52.0*
0.01
GMPD (/HPF; 95%CI)
1.2 (0.8–1.8)
0.6 (0.4–1.1)
0.4 (0.2–0.7)*
0.01
Stage of infection
    
   None
47.4
57.7*
70.9*
 
   Resolved
6.6
9.2
7.2
 
   Late
35.9
20.7*
9.4*
 
   Early
10.2
12.5
12.6
< 0.0001
HRP2, histidine-rich-protein 2; GMPD, geometric mean parasite density; 95%CI, 95% confidence interval; HPF, high power field; *, difference to primiparae, P < 0.05

Factors influencing the presence of placental malaria

Placental haemozoin was the clinically most relevant marker of infection and factors influencing its presence were analysed. In multivariate analysis, primiparity, low age, and delivery in the rainy season were independently associated with haemozoin (Table 3). In women with >3 antenatal care visits, haemozoin was somewhat less common (28.2%, 121/429) than in women with fewer visits (33.7%, 132/392; P = 0.09). PYR in plasma was associated with a slight reduction in the prevalence of haemozoin only (27.9%, 80/287 vs. 32.4%, 173/534; P = 0.18). In primiparae, this difference was pronounced and statistically significant (31.1%, 33/106 vs. 47.9%, 92/192; P = 0.005).
Table 3
Risk factors of placental haemozoin
Factor
Haemozoin detected (%, fraction)
Univariate analysis
Multivariate analysis
  
OR (95%CI)
P
OR (95%CI)
P
Parity
     
   >1
24.2 (128/528)
1
 
1
 
   1
42.4 (129/304)
2.3 (1.7–3.2)
< 0.0001
1.5 (1.0–2.2)
0.04
Age-group (years)
     
   >30
17.4 (33/190)
1
 
1
 
   26–30
27.0 (57/211)
1.8 (1.1–2.9)
0.02
1.7 (1.0–2.8)
0.04
   21–25
33.9 (82/242)
2.4 (1.5–4.0)
0.0001
2.1 (1.3–3.5)
0.003
   ≤20
45.7 (84/184)
4.0 (2.4–6.6)
<0.0001
3.0 (1.7–5.2)
0.0002
Season
     
   Dry
27.1 (109/402)
1
 
1
 
   Rainy*
34.3 (150/437)
1.4 (1.0–1.9)
0.02
1.4 (1.1–2.0)
0.02
OR, odds ratio: 95%CI, 95% confidence interval; *, rainy season, May-October

Association between diagnosis of malaria and its clinical manifestation

Irrespective of diagnostic tool, P. falciparum infection increased the risk of maternal anaemia (Table 4). A positive peripheral blood film or a positive PCR result were neither associated with LBW nor with PD. In peripheral blood samples, the HRP2 test best discriminated women with and without malaria-associated adverse foetal outcome (Table 4). Importantly, in women with a negative peripheral blood film, a positive HRP2 test indicated risk increases of 71%, 79%, and 114% for LBW, PD, and anaemia, respectively. A positive PCR signal in this sub-group was associated only with anaemia. Further stratification revealed that in case of a positive peripheral result exclusively by PCR (n = 160), the proportions of LBW (15%) and PD (14%) were similar to the figures in de facto non-infected women (n = 382; 14%, P = 0.7; and 17%, P = 0.4). Still, the prevalence of anaemia was increased (39% vs. 25%, P = 0.002).
Table 4
Prevalences of low birth weight, preterm delivery, and maternal anaemia according to diagnosis of Plasmodium falciparum
Diagnostic tool
No.
Low birth weight
Preterm delivery
Anaemia
  
%
OR (95%CI)
P
%
OR (95%CI)
P
%
OR (95%CI)
P
Peripheral blood
Microscopy
   Negative
680
15.8
  
18.4
  
32.9
  
   Positive
159
17.0
1.1 (0.7–1.8)
ns
20.3
1.1 (0.7–1.8)
ns
44.7
1.6 (1.1–2.4)
0.005
HRP2 test
   Negative
553
14.3
  
16.5
  
29.5
  
   Positive
286
19.4
1.4 (1.0–2.1)
0.06
23.1
1.5 (1.1–2.2)
0.02
46.2
2.1 (1.5–2.8)
<0.0001
PCR
   Negative
395
14.2
  
17.9
  
25.6
  
   Positive
444
17.6
1.3 (0.9–1.9)
ns
19.6
1.1 (0.8–1.6)
ns
43.7
2.3 (1.7–3.1)
<0.0001
HRP2 test if microscopy negative
   Negative
542
14.2
  
16.5
  
29.3
  
   Positive
138
21.9
1.7 (1.0–2.8)
0.03
26.1
1.8 (1.1–2.9)
0.01
47.1
2.1 (1.4–3.2)
<0.0001
PCR if microscopy negative
   Negative
394
14.2
  
17.9
  
25.6
  
   Positive
286
17.9
1.3 (0.9–2.0)
ns
19.1
1.1 (0.7–1.6)
ns
43.0
2.2 (1.6–3.1)
<0.0001
Placental blood
Microscopy
   Negative
546
14.3
  
17.7
  
28.8
  
   Positive
293
19.2
1.4 (1.0–2.1)
0.07
20.8
1.2 (0.8–1.8)
ns
47.1
2.2 (1.6–3.0)
<0.0001
Haemozoin
   Negative
580
13.6
  
16.5
  
27.8
  
   Positive
259
21.3
1.7 (1.2–2.6)
0.005
23.9
1.6 (1.1–2.3)
0.01
51.7
2.8 (2.0–3.8)
<0.0001
HRP2 test
   Negative
497
12.9
  
16.0
  
27.0
  
   Positive
342
20.5
1.8 (1.2–2.6)
0.003
22.8
1.6 (1.1–2.2)
0.01
47.1
2.4 (1.8–3.3)
<0.0001
PCR
   Negative
341
13.5
  
17.5
  
23.8
  
   Positive
498
17.7
1.4 (0.9–2.1)
ns
19.7
1.2 (0.8–1.7)
ns
43.0
2.4 (1.8–3.3)
<0.0001
Stage of infection
   None
482
13.5
  
16.7
  
27.0
  
   Resolved
64
20.3
1.6 (0.8–3.3)
ns
25.0
1.7 (0.9–3.2)
ns
42.2
2.0 (1.1–3.5)
0.01
   Late
195
21.6
1.8 (1.1–2.8)
0.009
23.6
1.5 (1.0–2.4)
0.04
54.9
3.3 (2.3–4.7)
<0.0001
   Early
98
14.3
1.1 (0.6–2.1)
ns
15.5
0.9 (0.5–1.7)
ns
31.6
1.3 (0.8–2.1)
ns
OR, odds ratio, 95%CI, 95% confidence interval; ns, not significant, P > 0.1
Peripheral blood parasite densities (GMPD, 558/μL; 95%CI, 404–772) correlated negatively with Hb (log10 parasite density, r = -0.18, P = 0.02) and gestational week (r = -0.18, P = 0.03) but not with birth weight (r = -0.06; P = 0.5). Placental parasite density (GMPD, 0.78/high power field; 95%CI, 0.06–1.03) did not show such correlations.
On the basis of placental sampling, again, microscopic and PCR detection of parasitaemia were not associated with LBW or PD whereas a positive HRP2 result was. Nevertheless, haemozoin was the marker of infection most strongly associated with all clinical consequences (Table 4). Likewise, late infections were found to be the most deleterious ones while patients with early infections clinically were similar to non-infected women. Haemozoin was also associated with the largest reduction in birth weight (median, 2850 g (range, 1280–4160) vs. 3000 g (1420–4500), P < 0.0001) which was smaller in case of a positive HRP2 test (2880 g (1420–4160) vs. 3000 (1280–4500), P = 0.0009) or a positive PCR result (2900 (1280–4350) vs. 3000 g (1500–4500), P = 0.04), and smallest if placental parasites were seen by microscopy (2900 g (1280–4160) vs. 2970 g (1420–4500), P = 0.02). Likewise, any diagnosis of placental P. falciparum was associated with significantly reduced Hb levels, but the reduction was largest in the presence of haemozoin (median, 10.8 g/dL (range, 4.6–15.6) vs. 11.7 g/dL (4.7–16.8), P < 0.0001). The week of gestation was not associated with infection, irrespective of diagnostic mean applied (data not shown).
Adjusting the above associations between P. falciparum infection and clinical manifestation for the confounders age, parity, and number of antenatal care visits did not substantially change the findings, however, statistical significance in terms of LBW and PD was reduced (Table 5).
Table 5
Adjusted risk estimates for low birth weight, preterm delivery, and maternal anaemia according to diagnosis of Plasmodium falciparum
Positive diagnosis
Low birth weight
Preterm delivery
Anaemia
 
aOR (95%CI)
P
aOR (95%CI)
P
aOR (95%CI)
P
Peripheral blood
      
Microscopy
0.9 (0.6–1.5)
ns
1.1 (0.7–1.7)
ns
1.6 (1.1–2.3)
0.01
HRP2 test
1.2 (0.8–1.8)
ns
1.4 (0.9–2.0)
ns
2.0 (1.5–2.7)
<0.0001
PCR
1.1 (0.8–1.7)
ns
1.1 (0.7–1.5)
ns
2.1 (1.6–2.9)
<0.0001
HRP2 test if microscopy negative
1.5 (0.9–2.5)
ns
1.7 (1.0–2.7)
0.03
2.1 (1.4–3.2)
0.0002
PCR if microscopy negative
1.2 (0.8–1.9)
ns
1.0 (0.7–1.6)
ns
2.0 (1.4–2.8)
<0.0001
Placental blood
      
Microscopy
1.1 (0.7–1.7)
ns
1.1 (0.7–1.6)
ns
2.2 (1.6–2.9)
<0.0001
Haemozoin
1.3 (0.8–1.9)
ns
1.3 (0.9–1.9)
ns
2.8 (2.0–3.9)
<0.0001
HRP2 test
1.5 (1.0–2.2)
0.04
1.4 (1.0–2.1)
0.055
2.3 (1.7–3.2)
<0.0001
PCR
1.2 (0.8–1.9)
ns
1.1 (0.8–1.6)
ns
2.4 (1.7–3.3)
<0.0001
Stage of infection
      
   Resolved
1.5 (0.8–3.0)
ns
1.5 (0.8–2.9)
ns
2.0 (1.1–3.4)
0.02
   Late
1.2 (0.8–1.9)
ns
1.2 (0.8–1.9)
ns
3.4 (2.3–4.9)
<0.0001
   Early
1.1 (0.6–2.1)
ns
1.0 (0.5–1.8)
ns
1.2 (0.8–2.0)
ns
aOR, adjusted odds ratio, 95%CI, 95% confidence interval; ns, not significant, P > 0.1. Odds ratios are adjusted for age (years), parity (log10), and antenatal care (≤, > 3 visits).

Discussion

Placental malaria is an important cause of both LBW and PD, which, in turn, are major determinants of neonatal and infant mortality [2224]. Annually, up to 200,000 infant deaths are attributed to malaria in pregnancy [25]. However, malaria in pregnancy frequently lacks overt clinical signs and its diagnosis is complicated by placental parasite sequestration.
In the present study, the vast majority of P. falciparum-infected delivering women were asymptomatic, and microscopy of thick films from peripheral blood missed more current infections than it detected. Roughly half of the women with microscopically proven placental parasitaemia had a negative peripheral blood film. The observed superior sensitivities of peripheral blood PCR or HRP2 assays are essentially in accord with previous reports [11, 14, 26, 27] and underscore that a negative peripheral blood film in pregnant women in endemic areas is hardly informative. In addition, the present study shows that in contrast to peripheral blood microscopy and PCR, HRP2 detection indicates an increased risk of poor pregnancy outcome and that sub-microscopic infections in pregnancy are associated with maternal and foetal morbidity.
Placental histology is considered the "gold standard" of malaria diagnosis in pregnancy for epidemiological or study purposes, however, due to limited technical expertise it is rarely available in endemic areas. Examination of thick films of blood samples obtained by placental incision is comparatively easier. As compared to histology, sensitivity and specificity of this method have been reported to be 76% and 99%, respectively, and thus to be in the range of microscopy of blood films produced by scraping the wall of the incision or by spinning down erythrocyte pellets from biopsy washings [28]. The detection of haemozoin on placental thick blood films likely is influenced by this difference in sensitivity and also neglects pigment deposition in placental structures. Consequently, staging placental infection based on placental thick blood films findings [5] – although deduced from the histological classification after Bulmer et al. [29] – is not fully comparable to histology and needs further evaluation. Nevertheless, haemozoin may be considered a "black box" in recording episodes of malaria in pregnancy even though the time span during which pigment can be found after resolved infection is unknown. In Thailand, placental haemozoin was observed among women with preceding malaria during the first trimester [30] but in Malawi, haemozoin concentrations were not elevated in women who had infections early in pregnancy [31]. For clinical use, haemozoin detection is practically unhelpful as it can be performed only at delivery, however, for epidemiological and intervention studies, it appears feasible and cost-effective.
The sensitivities of the HRP2 test (78%) or PCR (97%) in detecting microscopically proven placental parasitaemia in peripheral blood were substantially higher than the one of peripheral blood film microscopy (50%). Improving performances of the peripheral blood tests with increasing placental parasite density have been described previously [12]. Because P. falciparum secretes HRP2, this protein can be detected in peripheral blood despite placental sequestration. In the present study, the specificities of the HRP2 test and of PCR were rather low when placental parasitaemia was taken as the reference. However, this probably is due to undetected parasites: when a positive placental PCR result was set as reference, specificities of HRP2 test and PCR on peripheral blood samples approached 100%. Similarily, the few studies comparing histology to PCR indicate a specificity of the latter of 100% [32, 33]. Nevertheless, it should be kept in mind that PCR assays can remain positive for some days after curative treatment (and HRP2 tests for some weeks) [34, 35].
Poor pregnancy outcome, e.g. LBW or PD, in this cross-sectional study at delivery was neither associated with a positive peripheral blood result of microscopy nor of PCR. This may be explained by the low sensitivity of the former, and the very high one of the latter. The HRP2 test with in-between sensitivity appears to be a practical compromise between sensitivity on the one hand and detecting clinically relevant infection on the other. Importantly, in seemingly aparasitaemic women, i.e. in those with a negative peripheral blood film, a positive HRP2 test was associated with anaemia, LBW and PD. Infections detected beyond that exclusively by PCR had no discernible effect on pregnancy outcome but were still associated with reduced maternal Hb. Previous studies on that topic produced conflicting results: in Ghana but not in Sudan, Mozambique, and Cameroon, sub-microscopic peripheral blood infections as detected by PCR were associated with low Hb levels or anaemia [10, 13, 15, 16]. Similar to the findings of the present study, P. falciparum as identified by peripheral blood microscopy or PCR in Burkina Faso was not associated with LBW or birth weight whereas the latter was reduced in case of a positive peripheral blood HRP2 dipstick [14]. Women found to be P. falciparum positive by PCR exclusively exhibited no increased risk of LBW in Malawi [11]. One study from Kenya reported that malaria as assessed by peripheral blood film was stronger associated with intrauterine growth retardation than were peripheral PCR or detection of circulating parasite antigen [36]. Differing results in these studies may be due to sample sizes, endemicity, and techniques applied. Taken together, one conclusion could be that PCR assays also detect low-level infections which produce no major foetal impairment. However, this interpretation needs caution as the course of sub-microscopic P. falciparum infection in pregnancy, e.g. abortive, chronic or progressive, is unknown. Considering the common fluctuations of parasite density [37], the temporal pattern of the manifestation of malaria in pregnancy [7] and the results presented here any infection detected should be considered potentially harmful (and treated). Even sub-microscopic infections detected exclusively by PCR were associated with maternal anaemia which may impair physical performance and increase the risk of PD [38].
The detection of haemozoin and placental HRP2 to similar extents were univariately associated with anaemia, LBW and PD but the reductions of Hb and birth weight were most pronounced in women with placental pigment. The association between placental haemozoin and LBW is well documented, e.g. in Senegal [39]. In contrast, in Malawi, haemozoin concentrations were neither associated with PD nor with intrauterine growth retardation [31], and in Tanzania, the role of placental pigment in LBW and PD waned when considering mononuclear placental infiltration and high peripheral parasite density, respectively [8]. The latter authors argued that haemozoin rather reflects the severity of a recent infection than having direct detrimental effects on foetal growth. However, haemozoin concentrations have been reported to correlate with the placental expression of tumour necrosis factor [40], and recent investigations indicate that pigment is not inert but exhibits direct clinical effects [41].
After adjusting for age, parity, and antenatal visits, the risk of maternal anaemia remained to be increased in the presence of P. falciparum, irrespective of diagnostic tool. However, in terms of placental diagnosis, only HRP2 was associated with LBW and PD, the latter at borderline statistical significance. Also, seemingly aparasitaemic women with HRP2 in peripheral blood exhibited an increased risk of PD. Infection detected by microscopy or PCR were not correlated with birth outcome. This unexpected but not uncommon finding [6, 7, 42] may reflect the importance of the temporal pattern of infection [7] and the greater contribution of various other factors to adverse foetal outcome. For instance, HIV infection, malnutrition, genetic traits, smoking, and a low socio-economic status are risk factors for poor pregnancy outcome [4345] but these factors were either not assessed or were rare. Recent data indicate a median HIV prevalence of 2.7% among antenatal care attendees in Ghana [46]. Still, malaria may effect poor pregnancy outcome indirectly via maternal anaemia [38, 47].
The effects of antenatal care and of PYR in plasma were modest in that infection was not consistently prevented by either factor. Reasons for the limited impact of PYR chemoprophylaxis likely include poor compliance (only 35% of the women had detectable PYR) and drug resistance. Already in 1998, 81% and 36% of P. falciparum isolated from pregnant women in Agogo exhibited a dihydrofolate reductase resistance core mutation and the high resistance triple mutation, respectively [18]. From 2005 on, intermittent preventive treatment (IPT) with sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine is operative at Agogo Hospital, and results from a survey in pregnancy in 2006 are being awaited. Optimistically, with extended antenatal services and coverage, and IPT, a reduction in the burden of malaria in pregnancy in this area should be achievable.

Conclusion

In conclusion, placental malaria commonly is missed by standard microscopy of peripheral blood films. Whereas positive results of PCR seem not to be related to poor pregnancy outcome, detection of HRP2 is capable of identifying P. falciparum infections associated with maternal and foetal morbidity. This is particularly true for women with a negative peripheral blood film. These findings are of importance for the implementation and evaluation of preventive measures for pregnant women in endemic areas and likely also for the assessment of response to treatment. The incorporation of sensitive rapid test devices such as HRP2 tests into antenatal services would be desirable. So far, the costs of IPT with SP are lower than the price of a dipstick of €1 ore more. However, cost-benefit considerations may change once SP has to be replaced because of intensifying drug resistance by more expensive drugs. In an operational sense, a dipstick in the second and third trimester may identify women in whom antimalarial interventions failed and who are at increased risk of maternal and foetal morbidity.

Acknowledgements

We thank the mothers who participated in this study and the midwifes at Agogo Hospital. This study was supported by Charité (grants 99–640, 2000-512, 2001-613), MerkSharpDome, Germany (grant "Infectious Diseases 1999"), and Becton Dickinson (donation of ICT Malaria P.f/P.v tests) and forms part of the doctoral theses of RB, KF, IH, and MS.
This article is published under license to BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://​creativecommons.​org/​licenses/​by/​2.​0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Authors' contributions

FPM, GBA, and UB designed the study. CvG, RB, KF, IH, FK, MS, UU, FPM and PAA were responsible for patient recruitment, and clinical and parasitological examinations. ED and FPM did the statistical analyses; TAE measured drug concentrations. FPM wrote the paper with major contributions of the other authors.
Literatur
2.
Zurück zum Zitat Fried M, Nosten F, Brockman A, Brabin BJ, Duffy PE: Maternal antibodies block malaria. Nature. 1998, 395: 851-852. 10.1038/27570.CrossRefPubMed Fried M, Nosten F, Brockman A, Brabin BJ, Duffy PE: Maternal antibodies block malaria. Nature. 1998, 395: 851-852. 10.1038/27570.CrossRefPubMed
3.
Zurück zum Zitat Duffy PE, Fried M: Antibodies that inhibit Plasmodium falciparum adhesion to chondroitin sulfate A are associated with increased birth weight and the gestational age of newborns. Infect Immun. 2003, 71: 6620-6623. 10.1128/IAI.71.11.6620-6623.2003.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Duffy PE, Fried M: Antibodies that inhibit Plasmodium falciparum adhesion to chondroitin sulfate A are associated with increased birth weight and the gestational age of newborns. Infect Immun. 2003, 71: 6620-6623. 10.1128/IAI.71.11.6620-6623.2003.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
4.
Zurück zum Zitat Brabin BJ, Romagosa C, Abdelgalil S, Menendez C, Verhoeff FH, McGready R, Fletcher KA, Owens S, D'Alessandro U, Nosten F, Fischer PR, Ordi J: The sick placenta-the role of malaria. Placenta. 2004, 25: 359-378. 10.1016/j.placenta.2003.10.019.CrossRefPubMed Brabin BJ, Romagosa C, Abdelgalil S, Menendez C, Verhoeff FH, McGready R, Fletcher KA, Owens S, D'Alessandro U, Nosten F, Fischer PR, Ordi J: The sick placenta-the role of malaria. Placenta. 2004, 25: 359-378. 10.1016/j.placenta.2003.10.019.CrossRefPubMed
5.
Zurück zum Zitat Fried M, Muga RO, Misore AO, Duffy PE: Malaria elicits type 1 cytokines in the human placenta: IFN-gamma and TNF-alpha associated with pregnancy outcomes. J Immunol. 1998, 160: 2523-2530.PubMed Fried M, Muga RO, Misore AO, Duffy PE: Malaria elicits type 1 cytokines in the human placenta: IFN-gamma and TNF-alpha associated with pregnancy outcomes. J Immunol. 1998, 160: 2523-2530.PubMed
6.
Zurück zum Zitat Steketee RW, Wirima JJ, Hightower AW, Slutsker L, Heymann DL, Breman JG: The effect of malaria and malaria prevention in pregnancy on offspring birthweight, prematurity, and intrauterine growth retardation in rural Malawi. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1996, 55 (1 Suppl): 33-41.PubMed Steketee RW, Wirima JJ, Hightower AW, Slutsker L, Heymann DL, Breman JG: The effect of malaria and malaria prevention in pregnancy on offspring birthweight, prematurity, and intrauterine growth retardation in rural Malawi. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1996, 55 (1 Suppl): 33-41.PubMed
7.
Zurück zum Zitat Sullivan AD, Nyirenda T, Cullinan T, Taylor T, Harlow SD, James SA, Meshnick SR: Malaria infection during pregnancy: intrauterine growth retardation and preterm delivery in Malawi. J Infect Dis. 1999, 179: 1580-1583. 10.1086/314752.CrossRefPubMed Sullivan AD, Nyirenda T, Cullinan T, Taylor T, Harlow SD, James SA, Meshnick SR: Malaria infection during pregnancy: intrauterine growth retardation and preterm delivery in Malawi. J Infect Dis. 1999, 179: 1580-1583. 10.1086/314752.CrossRefPubMed
8.
Zurück zum Zitat Menendez C, Ordi J, Ismail MR, Ventura PJ, Aponte JJ, Kahigwa E, Font F, Alonso PL: The impact of placental malaria on gestational age and birth weight. J Infect Dis. 2000, 181: 1740-1745. 10.1086/315449.CrossRefPubMed Menendez C, Ordi J, Ismail MR, Ventura PJ, Aponte JJ, Kahigwa E, Font F, Alonso PL: The impact of placental malaria on gestational age and birth weight. J Infect Dis. 2000, 181: 1740-1745. 10.1086/315449.CrossRefPubMed
9.
Zurück zum Zitat van Geertruyden JP, Thomas F, Erhart A, D'Alessandro U: The contribution of malaria in pregnancy to perinatal mortality. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2004, 71 (2 Suppl): 35-40.PubMed van Geertruyden JP, Thomas F, Erhart A, D'Alessandro U: The contribution of malaria in pregnancy to perinatal mortality. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2004, 71 (2 Suppl): 35-40.PubMed
10.
Zurück zum Zitat Mockenhaupt FP, Rong B, Till H, Eggelte TA, Beck S, Gyasi-Sarpong C, Thompson WN, Bienzle U: Submicroscopic Plasmodium falciparum infections in pregnancy in Ghana. Trop Med Int Health. 2000, 5: 167-173. 10.1046/j.1365-3156.2000.00532.x.CrossRefPubMed Mockenhaupt FP, Rong B, Till H, Eggelte TA, Beck S, Gyasi-Sarpong C, Thompson WN, Bienzle U: Submicroscopic Plasmodium falciparum infections in pregnancy in Ghana. Trop Med Int Health. 2000, 5: 167-173. 10.1046/j.1365-3156.2000.00532.x.CrossRefPubMed
11.
Zurück zum Zitat Mankhambo L, Kanjala M, Rudman S, Lema VM, Rogerson SJ: Evaluation of the OptiMAL rapid antigen test and species-specific PCR to detect placental Plasmodium falciparum infection at delivery. J Clin Microbiol. 2002, 40: 155-158. 10.1128/JCM.40.1.155-158.2002.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Mankhambo L, Kanjala M, Rudman S, Lema VM, Rogerson SJ: Evaluation of the OptiMAL rapid antigen test and species-specific PCR to detect placental Plasmodium falciparum infection at delivery. J Clin Microbiol. 2002, 40: 155-158. 10.1128/JCM.40.1.155-158.2002.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
12.
Zurück zum Zitat Mockenhaupt FP, Ulmen U, von Gaertner C, Bedu-Addo G, Bienzle U: Diagnosis of placental malaria. J Clin Microbiol. 2002, 40: 306-308. 10.1128/JCM.40.1.306-308.2002.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Mockenhaupt FP, Ulmen U, von Gaertner C, Bedu-Addo G, Bienzle U: Diagnosis of placental malaria. J Clin Microbiol. 2002, 40: 306-308. 10.1128/JCM.40.1.306-308.2002.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
13.
Zurück zum Zitat Saute F, Menendez C, Mayor A, Aponte J, Gomez-Olive X, Dgedge M, Alonso P: Malaria in pregnancy in rural Mozambique: the role of parity, submicroscopic and multiple Plasmodium falciparum infections. Trop Med Int Health. 2002, 7: 19-28. 10.1046/j.1365-3156.2002.00831.x.CrossRefPubMed Saute F, Menendez C, Mayor A, Aponte J, Gomez-Olive X, Dgedge M, Alonso P: Malaria in pregnancy in rural Mozambique: the role of parity, submicroscopic and multiple Plasmodium falciparum infections. Trop Med Int Health. 2002, 7: 19-28. 10.1046/j.1365-3156.2002.00831.x.CrossRefPubMed
14.
Zurück zum Zitat Singer LM, Newman RD, Diarra A, Moran AC, Huber CS, Stennies G, Sirima SB, Konate A, Yameogo M, Sawadogo R, Barnwell JW, Parise ME: Evaluation of a malaria rapid diagnostic test for assessing the burden of malaria during pregnancy. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2004, 70: 481-485.PubMed Singer LM, Newman RD, Diarra A, Moran AC, Huber CS, Stennies G, Sirima SB, Konate A, Yameogo M, Sawadogo R, Barnwell JW, Parise ME: Evaluation of a malaria rapid diagnostic test for assessing the burden of malaria during pregnancy. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2004, 70: 481-485.PubMed
15.
Zurück zum Zitat Adam I, A-Elbasit IE, Salih I, Elbashir MI: Submicroscopic Plasmodium falciparum infections during pregnancy, in an area of Sudan with a low intensity of malaria transmission. Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 2005, 99: 339-344. 10.1179/136485905X36244.CrossRefPubMed Adam I, A-Elbasit IE, Salih I, Elbashir MI: Submicroscopic Plasmodium falciparum infections during pregnancy, in an area of Sudan with a low intensity of malaria transmission. Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 2005, 99: 339-344. 10.1179/136485905X36244.CrossRefPubMed
16.
Zurück zum Zitat Walker-Abbey A, Djokam RR, Eno A, Leke RF, Titanji VP, Fogako J, Sama G, Thuita LH, Beardslee E, Snounou G, Zhou A, Taylor DW: Malaria in pregnant Cameroonian women: the effect of age and gravidity on submicroscopic and mixed-species infections and multiple parasite genotypes. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2005, 72: 229-235.PubMed Walker-Abbey A, Djokam RR, Eno A, Leke RF, Titanji VP, Fogako J, Sama G, Thuita LH, Beardslee E, Snounou G, Zhou A, Taylor DW: Malaria in pregnant Cameroonian women: the effect of age and gravidity on submicroscopic and mixed-species infections and multiple parasite genotypes. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2005, 72: 229-235.PubMed
17.
Zurück zum Zitat Browne EN, Frimpong E, Sievertsen J, Hagen J, Hamelmann C, Dietz K, Horstmann RD, Burchard GD: Malariometric update for the rainforest and savanna of Ashanti region, Ghana. Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 2000, 94: 15-22. 10.1080/00034980057572.CrossRefPubMed Browne EN, Frimpong E, Sievertsen J, Hagen J, Hamelmann C, Dietz K, Horstmann RD, Burchard GD: Malariometric update for the rainforest and savanna of Ashanti region, Ghana. Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 2000, 94: 15-22. 10.1080/00034980057572.CrossRefPubMed
18.
Zurück zum Zitat Mockenhaupt FP, Eggelte TA, Böhme T, Thompson WN, Bienzle U: Plasmodium falciparum dihydrofolate reductase alleles and pyrimethamine use in pregnant Ghanaian women. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2001, 65: 21-26.PubMed Mockenhaupt FP, Eggelte TA, Böhme T, Thompson WN, Bienzle U: Plasmodium falciparum dihydrofolate reductase alleles and pyrimethamine use in pregnant Ghanaian women. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2001, 65: 21-26.PubMed
19.
Zurück zum Zitat Snounou G, Viriyakosol S, Zhu XP, Jarra W, Pinheiro L, do Rosario VE, Thaithong S, Brown KN: High sensitivity of detection of human malaria parasites by the use of nested polymerase chain reaction. Mol Biochem Parasitol. 1993, 61: 315-320. 10.1016/0166-6851(93)90077-B.CrossRefPubMed Snounou G, Viriyakosol S, Zhu XP, Jarra W, Pinheiro L, do Rosario VE, Thaithong S, Brown KN: High sensitivity of detection of human malaria parasites by the use of nested polymerase chain reaction. Mol Biochem Parasitol. 1993, 61: 315-320. 10.1016/0166-6851(93)90077-B.CrossRefPubMed
20.
Zurück zum Zitat Witte AM, Klever HJ, Brabin BJ, Eggelte TA, Van der Kaay HJ, Alpers MP: Field evaluation of the use of an ELISA to detect chloroquine and its metabolites in blood, urine and breast-milk. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1990, 84: 521-525. 10.1016/0035-9203(90)90024-9.CrossRefPubMed Witte AM, Klever HJ, Brabin BJ, Eggelte TA, Van der Kaay HJ, Alpers MP: Field evaluation of the use of an ELISA to detect chloroquine and its metabolites in blood, urine and breast-milk. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1990, 84: 521-525. 10.1016/0035-9203(90)90024-9.CrossRefPubMed
21.
Zurück zum Zitat Finnström O: Studies on maturity in newborn infants. IX. Further observations on the use of external characteristics in estimating gestational age. Acta Paediatr Scand. 1977, 66: 601-604.CrossRefPubMed Finnström O: Studies on maturity in newborn infants. IX. Further observations on the use of external characteristics in estimating gestational age. Acta Paediatr Scand. 1977, 66: 601-604.CrossRefPubMed
22.
Zurück zum Zitat McCormick MC: The contribution of low birth weight to infant mortality and childhood morbidity. N Engl J Med. 1985, 312: 82-90.CrossRefPubMed McCormick MC: The contribution of low birth weight to infant mortality and childhood morbidity. N Engl J Med. 1985, 312: 82-90.CrossRefPubMed
23.
Zurück zum Zitat Kramer MS: Determinants of low birth weight: methodological assessment and meta-analysis. Bull World Health Organ. 1987, 65: 663-737.PubMedCentralPubMed Kramer MS: Determinants of low birth weight: methodological assessment and meta-analysis. Bull World Health Organ. 1987, 65: 663-737.PubMedCentralPubMed
24.
Zurück zum Zitat Kramer MS, Demissie K, Yang H, Platt RW, Sauve R, Liston R: The contribution of mild and moderate preterm birth to infant mortality. Fetal and Infant Health Study Group of the Canadian Perinatal Surveillance System. JAMA. 2000, 284: 843-849. 10.1001/jama.284.7.843.CrossRefPubMed Kramer MS, Demissie K, Yang H, Platt RW, Sauve R, Liston R: The contribution of mild and moderate preterm birth to infant mortality. Fetal and Infant Health Study Group of the Canadian Perinatal Surveillance System. JAMA. 2000, 284: 843-849. 10.1001/jama.284.7.843.CrossRefPubMed
25.
Zurück zum Zitat Steketee RW, Nahlen BL, Parise ME, Menendez C: The burden of malaria in pregnancy in malaria-endemic areas. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2001, 64 (1–2 Suppl): 28-35.PubMed Steketee RW, Nahlen BL, Parise ME, Menendez C: The burden of malaria in pregnancy in malaria-endemic areas. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2001, 64 (1–2 Suppl): 28-35.PubMed
26.
Zurück zum Zitat Leke RF, Djokam RR, Mbu R, Leke RJ, Fogako J, Megnekou R, Metenou S, Sama G, Zhou Y, Cadigan T, Parra M, Taylor DW: Detection of the Plasmodium falciparum antigen histidine-rich protein 2 in blood of pregnant women: implications for diagnosing placental malaria. J Clin Microbiol. 1999, 37: 2992-2996.PubMedCentralPubMed Leke RF, Djokam RR, Mbu R, Leke RJ, Fogako J, Megnekou R, Metenou S, Sama G, Zhou Y, Cadigan T, Parra M, Taylor DW: Detection of the Plasmodium falciparum antigen histidine-rich protein 2 in blood of pregnant women: implications for diagnosing placental malaria. J Clin Microbiol. 1999, 37: 2992-2996.PubMedCentralPubMed
27.
Zurück zum Zitat Mayengue PI, Rieth H, Khattab A, Issifou S, Kremsner PG, Klinkert MQ, Ntoumi F: Submicroscopic Plasmodium falciparum infections and multiplicity of infection in matched peripheral, placental and umbilical cord blood samples from Gabonese women. Trop Med Int Health. 2004, 9: 949-958. 10.1111/j.1365-3156.2004.01294.x.CrossRefPubMed Mayengue PI, Rieth H, Khattab A, Issifou S, Kremsner PG, Klinkert MQ, Ntoumi F: Submicroscopic Plasmodium falciparum infections and multiplicity of infection in matched peripheral, placental and umbilical cord blood samples from Gabonese women. Trop Med Int Health. 2004, 9: 949-958. 10.1111/j.1365-3156.2004.01294.x.CrossRefPubMed
28.
Zurück zum Zitat Rogerson SJ, Mkundika P, Kanjala MK: Diagnosis of Plasmodium falciparum malaria at delivery: comparison of blood film preparation methods and of blood films with histology. J Clin Microbiol. 2003, 41: 1370-1374. 10.1128/JCM.41.4.1370-1374.2003.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Rogerson SJ, Mkundika P, Kanjala MK: Diagnosis of Plasmodium falciparum malaria at delivery: comparison of blood film preparation methods and of blood films with histology. J Clin Microbiol. 2003, 41: 1370-1374. 10.1128/JCM.41.4.1370-1374.2003.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
29.
Zurück zum Zitat Bulmer JN, Rasheed FN, Francis N, Morrison L, Greenwood BM: Placental malaria. I. Pathological classification. Histopathology. 1993, 22: 211-218.CrossRefPubMed Bulmer JN, Rasheed FN, Francis N, Morrison L, Greenwood BM: Placental malaria. I. Pathological classification. Histopathology. 1993, 22: 211-218.CrossRefPubMed
30.
Zurück zum Zitat McGready R, Brockman A, Cho T, Levesque MA, Tkachuk AN, Meshnick SR, Nosten F: Haemozoin as a marker of placental parasitization. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2002, 96: 644-646. 10.1016/S0035-9203(02)90339-1.CrossRefPubMed McGready R, Brockman A, Cho T, Levesque MA, Tkachuk AN, Meshnick SR, Nosten F: Haemozoin as a marker of placental parasitization. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2002, 96: 644-646. 10.1016/S0035-9203(02)90339-1.CrossRefPubMed
31.
Zurück zum Zitat Sullivan AD, Nyirenda T, Cullinan T, Taylor T, Lau A, Meshnik SR: Placental haemozoin and malaria in pregnancy. Placenta. 2000, 21: 417-421. 10.1053/plac.1999.0479.CrossRefPubMed Sullivan AD, Nyirenda T, Cullinan T, Taylor T, Lau A, Meshnik SR: Placental haemozoin and malaria in pregnancy. Placenta. 2000, 21: 417-421. 10.1053/plac.1999.0479.CrossRefPubMed
32.
Zurück zum Zitat Kamwendo DD, Dzinjalamala FK, Snounou G, Kanjala MC, Mhango CG, Molyneux ME, Rogerson SJ: Plasmodium falciparum : PCR detection and genotyping of isolates from peripheral, placental, and cord blood of pregnant Malawian women and their infants. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2002, 96: 145-149. 10.1016/S0035-9203(02)90284-1.CrossRefPubMed Kamwendo DD, Dzinjalamala FK, Snounou G, Kanjala MC, Mhango CG, Molyneux ME, Rogerson SJ: Plasmodium falciparum : PCR detection and genotyping of isolates from peripheral, placental, and cord blood of pregnant Malawian women and their infants. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2002, 96: 145-149. 10.1016/S0035-9203(02)90284-1.CrossRefPubMed
33.
Zurück zum Zitat Kassam SN, Nesbitt S, Hunt LP, Oster N, Soothill P, Sergi C: Pregnancy outcomes in women with or without placental malaria infection. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2006, 93: 225-232. 10.1016/j.ijgo.2006.02.021.CrossRefPubMed Kassam SN, Nesbitt S, Hunt LP, Oster N, Soothill P, Sergi C: Pregnancy outcomes in women with or without placental malaria infection. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2006, 93: 225-232. 10.1016/j.ijgo.2006.02.021.CrossRefPubMed
34.
Zurück zum Zitat Kain KC, Kyle DE, Wongsrichanalai C, Brown AE, Webster HK, Vanijanonta S, Looareesuwan S: Qualitative and semiquantitative polymerase chain reaction to predict Plasmodium falciparum treatment failure. J Infect Dis. 1994, 170: 1626-1630.CrossRefPubMed Kain KC, Kyle DE, Wongsrichanalai C, Brown AE, Webster HK, Vanijanonta S, Looareesuwan S: Qualitative and semiquantitative polymerase chain reaction to predict Plasmodium falciparum treatment failure. J Infect Dis. 1994, 170: 1626-1630.CrossRefPubMed
35.
Zurück zum Zitat Humar A, Ohrt C, Harrington MA, Pillai D, Kain KC: Parasight F test compared with the polymerase chain reaction and microscopy for the diagnosis of Plasmodium falciparum malaria in travelers. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1997, 56: 44-48.PubMed Humar A, Ohrt C, Harrington MA, Pillai D, Kain KC: Parasight F test compared with the polymerase chain reaction and microscopy for the diagnosis of Plasmodium falciparum malaria in travelers. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1997, 56: 44-48.PubMed
36.
Zurück zum Zitat Malhotra I, Dent A, Mungai P, Muchiri E, King CL: Real-time quantitative PCR for determining the burden of Plasmodium falciparum parasites during pregnancy and infancy. J Clin Microbiol. 2005, 43: 3630-3635. 10.1128/JCM.43.8.3630-3635.2005.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed Malhotra I, Dent A, Mungai P, Muchiri E, King CL: Real-time quantitative PCR for determining the burden of Plasmodium falciparum parasites during pregnancy and infancy. J Clin Microbiol. 2005, 43: 3630-3635. 10.1128/JCM.43.8.3630-3635.2005.PubMedCentralCrossRefPubMed
37.
Zurück zum Zitat Bell DR, Wilson DW, Martin LB: False-positive results of a Plasmodium falciparum histidine-rich protein 2-detecting malaria rapid diagnostic test due to high sensitivity in a community with fluctuating low parasite density. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2005, 73: 199-203.PubMed Bell DR, Wilson DW, Martin LB: False-positive results of a Plasmodium falciparum histidine-rich protein 2-detecting malaria rapid diagnostic test due to high sensitivity in a community with fluctuating low parasite density. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2005, 73: 199-203.PubMed
38.
Zurück zum Zitat Scholl TO, Hediger ML, Fischer RL, Shearer JW: Anemia vs iron deficiency: increased risk of preterm delivery in a prospective study. Am J Clin Nutr. 1992, 55: 985-988.PubMed Scholl TO, Hediger ML, Fischer RL, Shearer JW: Anemia vs iron deficiency: increased risk of preterm delivery in a prospective study. Am J Clin Nutr. 1992, 55: 985-988.PubMed
39.
Zurück zum Zitat Sarr D, Marrama L, Gaye A, Dangou JM, Niang M, Mercereau-Puijalon O, Lehesran JY, Jambou R: High prevalence of placental malaria and low birth weight in Sahelian periurban area. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2006, 75: 171-177.PubMed Sarr D, Marrama L, Gaye A, Dangou JM, Niang M, Mercereau-Puijalon O, Lehesran JY, Jambou R: High prevalence of placental malaria and low birth weight in Sahelian periurban area. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2006, 75: 171-177.PubMed
40.
Zurück zum Zitat Moormann AM, Sullivan AD, Rochford RA, Chensue SW, Bock PJ, Nyirenda T, Meshnick SR: Malaria and pregnancy: placental cytokine expression and its relationship to intrauterine growth retardation. J Infect Dis. 1999, 180: 1987-1993. 10.1086/315135.CrossRefPubMed Moormann AM, Sullivan AD, Rochford RA, Chensue SW, Bock PJ, Nyirenda T, Meshnick SR: Malaria and pregnancy: placental cytokine expression and its relationship to intrauterine growth retardation. J Infect Dis. 1999, 180: 1987-1993. 10.1086/315135.CrossRefPubMed
41.
Zurück zum Zitat Casals-Pascual C, Kai O, Cheung JO, Williams S, Lowe B, Nyanoti M, Williams TN, Maitland K, Molyneux M, Newton CR, Peshu N, Watt SM, Roberts D: Suppression of erythropoiesis in malarial anemia is associated with hemozoin in vitro and in vivo. Blood. 2006, 108: 2569-2577. 10.1182/blood-2006-05-018697.CrossRefPubMed Casals-Pascual C, Kai O, Cheung JO, Williams S, Lowe B, Nyanoti M, Williams TN, Maitland K, Molyneux M, Newton CR, Peshu N, Watt SM, Roberts D: Suppression of erythropoiesis in malarial anemia is associated with hemozoin in vitro and in vivo. Blood. 2006, 108: 2569-2577. 10.1182/blood-2006-05-018697.CrossRefPubMed
42.
Zurück zum Zitat Tako EA, Zhou A, Lohoue J, Leke R, Taylor DW, Leke RF: Risk factors for placental malaria and its effect on pregnancy outcome in Yaounde, Cameroon. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2005, 72: 236-242.PubMed Tako EA, Zhou A, Lohoue J, Leke R, Taylor DW, Leke RF: Risk factors for placental malaria and its effect on pregnancy outcome in Yaounde, Cameroon. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2005, 72: 236-242.PubMed
43.
Zurück zum Zitat Brocklehurst P, French R: The association between maternal HIV infection and perinatal outcome: a systematic review of the literature and meta-analysis. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1998, 105: 836-848.CrossRefPubMed Brocklehurst P, French R: The association between maternal HIV infection and perinatal outcome: a systematic review of the literature and meta-analysis. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1998, 105: 836-848.CrossRefPubMed
44.
Zurück zum Zitat Ashdown-Lambert JR: A review of low birth weight: predictors, precursors and morbidity outcomes. J R Soc Health. 2005, 125: 76-83.CrossRef Ashdown-Lambert JR: A review of low birth weight: predictors, precursors and morbidity outcomes. J R Soc Health. 2005, 125: 76-83.CrossRef
45.
Zurück zum Zitat Mockenhaupt FP, Hamann L, von Gaertner C, Bedu-Addo G, von Kleinsorgen C, Schumann RR, Bienzle U: Common polymorphisms of Toll-Like receptors 4 and 9 are associated with the clinical manifestation of malaria during pregnancy. J Infect Dis. 2006, 194: 184-188. 10.1086/505152.CrossRefPubMed Mockenhaupt FP, Hamann L, von Gaertner C, Bedu-Addo G, von Kleinsorgen C, Schumann RR, Bienzle U: Common polymorphisms of Toll-Like receptors 4 and 9 are associated with the clinical manifestation of malaria during pregnancy. J Infect Dis. 2006, 194: 184-188. 10.1086/505152.CrossRefPubMed
47.
Zurück zum Zitat Lone FW, Qureshi RN, Emanuel F: Maternal anaemia and its impact on perinatal outcome. Trop Med Int Health. 2004, 9: 486-490. 10.1111/j.1365-3156.2004.01222.x.CrossRefPubMed Lone FW, Qureshi RN, Emanuel F: Maternal anaemia and its impact on perinatal outcome. Trop Med Int Health. 2004, 9: 486-490. 10.1111/j.1365-3156.2004.01222.x.CrossRefPubMed
Metadaten
Titel
Detection and clinical manifestation of placental malaria in southern Ghana
verfasst von
Frank P Mockenhaupt
George Bedu-Addo
Christiane von Gaertner
Renate Boyé
Katrin Fricke
Iris Hannibal
Filiz Karakaya
Marieke Schaller
Ulrike Ulmen
Patrick A Acquah
Ekkehart Dietz
Teunis A Eggelte
Ulrich Bienzle
Publikationsdatum
01.12.2006
Verlag
BioMed Central
Erschienen in
Malaria Journal / Ausgabe 1/2006
Elektronische ISSN: 1475-2875
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1186/1475-2875-5-119

Weitere Artikel der Ausgabe 1/2006

Malaria Journal 1/2006 Zur Ausgabe

Leitlinien kompakt für die Innere Medizin

Mit medbee Pocketcards sicher entscheiden.

Seit 2022 gehört die medbee GmbH zum Springer Medizin Verlag

Update Innere Medizin

Bestellen Sie unseren Fach-Newsletter und bleiben Sie gut informiert.