Background
The family of cysteine proteases known as caspases are the key components of apoptosis or programmed cell death [
1]. TRAIL (TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand), a member of TNF family, uses caspase activation as a signaling mechanism leading to apoptosis via two distinct pathways, involving either ligation of death receptors at the cell surface in recruitment of certain procaspases or through the mitochondrial pathway with release of apoptogenic factors such as cytochrome c and Smac/DIABLO into the cytosol along with several other factors such as endonuclease G, apoptotic inducing factor (AIF) and Omi/Htr A2, in parallel with the profound loss of mitochondrial membrane potential [
2]. A cross talk exists between apoptotic pathways mediated by cell death receptors and mitochondria through the caspase 8-dependent Bid cleavage (a Bcl-2 family protein) [
3]. The activation of initiator caspases such as caspase 8 and caspase 9 is thought to irreversibly trigger the caspase cascade, necessitating that caspase activation is tightly regulated by layered control mechanism.
Several endogenous antagonists of caspase activation pathway which lead to dysregulation of their expression or function in cancer cells have been discovered, such alterations include an impaired ability of the cancer cell to undergo apoptosis. The cellular proteins shown to regulate caspase activation and activity are the IAP's (inhibition of apoptosis protein) including cIAP-1, cIAP-2, XIAP and survivin [
4]. These proteins are reported to block death receptors and mitochondrial mediated apoptotic pathways by directly inhibiting initiator and effector caspases. Mitochondrial proapoptotic protein Smac/DIABLO is shown to potentiate apoptosis by counteracting the anti apoptotic function of the IAP's. All IAP's contain at least 1, while some contain 3 BIR (baculovirus IAP repeat) domains [
4]. XIAP through BIR domains mediate both its inhibiting activity on caspases and the protein-protein interaction with Smac/DIABLO. During apoptosis, the mitochondrial Smac/DIABLO is released into the cytosol and binds to XIAP by which it antagonizes XIAP interaction with caspase 9, thereby promoting the activity of caspase 9, followed by caspase 3 and apoptosis. The N-terminal peptide (AVPIAQK) of Smac/DIABLO can bind across in a surface groove of BIR 3 of XIAP in a mutually exclusive manner with caspase 9. We have recently demonstrated that mitochondrial events are required for TRAIL-induced apoptosis [
5]. Ectopic overexpression of Smac/DIABLO completely restored TRAIL sensitivity by negative regulation of caspase cascade through XIAP [
5]. Expression of a cytosolic active form of Smac/DIABLO or cell permeable Smac/DIABLO peptide bypassed the Bcl-2 block, which prevented the release of Smac/DIABLO from mitochondria.
The objective of the paper is to examine whether Smac/DIABLO enhances the apoptosis-inducing potential of chemotherapeutic drugs (paclitaxel, tamoxifen and doxorubicin) and irradiation, and sensitizes TRAIL-resistant breast cancer cells. The results demonstrate that Smac/DIABLO gene or cell permeable Smac/DIABLO peptide enhances the apoptosis-inducing potential of chemotherapeutic drugs and irradiation, and sensitizes TRAIL-resistant breast cancer cells to apoptosis. Thus, Smac/DIABLO gene or Smac/DIABLO peptide can be used to enhance the effectiveness of commonly used anticancer drugs, irradiation and TRAIL in breast cancer.
Discussion
Our studies provide a rational for the development of combined treatment regimens when Smac/DIABLO agonists enhance the apoptotic response of commonly used chemotherapeutic drugs, irradiation or TRAIL for the treatment of breast cancer. We have shown that Smac/DIABLO enhances the apoptosis-inducing potential of chemotherapeutic drugs (tamoxifen, doxorubicin, or paclitaxel), irradiation and sensitized TRAIL-resistant breast cancer cells in vitro by activating caspases-3. Although TRAIL was ineffective alone, Smac/DIABLO sensitizes TRAIL-resistant MDA-MB-468 breast cancer cells.
We have previously documented the role of mitochondria in TRAIL-induced apoptosis [
10]. Caspase-8 activation by TRAIL is necessary but not sufficient to induce apoptosis. Crosstalk between the death-receptor and mitochondrial pathways is mediated by caspase-8 cleavage of Bid to tBid [
10,
13‐
15]. tBid activates proapoptotic members Bak and Bax to release cytochrome c and Smac/DIABLO from mitochondria [
5,
16]. We have recently shown that the release of cytochrome c and Smac/DIABLO is differentially regulated by Bax and Bak [
5]. In epithelial cells, mitochondria amplify the apoptotic signals leading to activation of caspase-9 followed by caspase-3. The synergistic effects of chemotherapeutic drugs (paclitaxel, vincristine, vinblastine, etoposide, camptothecin and doxorubicin) or irradiation with TRAIL on apoptosis occur through activation of downstream caspase-3, which can be activated by both mitochondria-dependent and -independent pathways [
17]. Activation of caspase cleaves several substrates leading to apoptotic cell death.
There are many factors contributing to the resistance to TRAIL. However, it is not clear whether the mechanism of resistance to TRAIL is constitutive or inductive. Several endogenous factors of TRAIL resistance have been proposed; which include (i) low expression of death receptors, (ii) overexpression of cFLIP, proapoptotic members of Bcl-2 family (e.g. Bcl-2 and Bcl-XL) and IAPs, (iii) mutations in Bax or/or Bak gene, and (iv) defects in the release in the mitochondrial proteins. Furthermore, the inability of TRAIL to down regulate anti-apoptotic genes and up-regulate pro-apoptotic genes may also contribute to TRAIL sensitivity/resistance. In the present study, we have shown that the exogenous Smac/DIABLO can enhance the apoptotic response of chemotherapeutic drugs and irradiation, and sensitizes TRAIL-resistant cells. In addition, the interaction of Smac/DIABLO with chemotherapeutic drugs or TRAIL on apoptosis occur through enhance binding of IAPs with Smac/DIABLO resulting in an increased activation of caspase-3.
The N-terminus of Smac/DIABLO (55 residues containing the mitochondrial targeting sequences, MTS) is removed by proteolysis to generate the mature and functional form (containing 184 amino acids) of the molecule during mitochondrial import [
18,
19]. Ectopic overexpression of Smac/DIABLO potentiates epothilone B derivative (BMS)-induced apoptosis [
20]. Furthermore, Smac/DIABLO agonists sensitized various tumor cells
in vitro and
in vivo for apoptosis induced by death-receptor ligation or cytotoxic drugs [
21‐
23]. Most importantly, Smac/DIABLO peptides strongly enhanced the antitumor activity of TRAIL in an intracranial malignant glioma xenograft model
in vivo [
21]. Complete eradication of established tumors and survival of mice was only achieved upon combined treatment with Smac/DIABLO peptides and TRAIL without detectable toxicity to normal brain tissue. Thus, Smac/DIABLO agonists are promising candidates for cancer therapy by potentiating cytotoxic therapies.
The toxicity of FasL and TNF to non-transformed cells precludes their clinical use [
24]. TRAIL, however, causes only minimal toxic effects in normal hepatocytes [
25], and the toxic effects can be overcome by simultaneous exposure to the caspase inhibitor, Z-LEHD-FMK [
26]. Soluble and native TRAIL has been shown to have no toxicity in rat, mice and nonhuman primates [
27,
28], suggesting its use as a potential anticancer agent [
29]. We have previously shown that most breast cancer cell lines were resistant to TRAIL, and chemotherapeutic drugs (paclitaxel, vincristine, vinblastine, etoposide and camptothecin) or irradiation sensitized TRAIL-resistant cells to undergo apoptosis through upregulation of death receptor DR4 and/or DR5 and activation of caspase-3 [
12,
30]. In the present study, we have demonstrated that TRAIL-resistant breast cancer cell lines can be sensitized by Smac/DIABLO (peptide or gene).
Conclusion
We have developed a novel strategy of combining Smac/DIABLO agonists with chemotherapeutic drugs, irradiation or TRAIL for the treatment of human breast cancer. Specifically, Smac/DIABLO increases the apoptosis-inducing potential of chemotherapeutic drugs (paclitaxel, doxorubicin and tamoxifen) and irradiation, and sensitizes TRAIL-resistant cells to undergo apoptosis through enhanced binding of Smac/DIABLO with IAPs and an increased in caspases-3 activity. Furthermore, our studies provide a foundation for the development of combined treatment regimens that would enhance the apoptotic response in both TRAIL-sensitive and TRAIL-resistant cells. Thus, it may be feasible to deliver Smac/DIABLO either through gene therapy or through small molecules/peptides to enhance the clinical applications of commonly used anticancer drugs, irradiation and TRAIL.
Methods
Reagents
Anti Smac/DIABLO, cIAP1, cIAP2, XIAP and β-actin antibodies were purchased from Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Inc. (Santa Cruz, CA). Caspase-3 assay kit and antibody against β-actin were purchase from Oncogene Research (Cambridge, MA). Antibodies against caspase-3 and poly ADP ribose polymerase (PARP) were purchased from Biosource International, Inc. (Camarillo, CA). TRAIL was synthesized as described earlier [
31]. Enhanced chemiluminescence (ECL) western blot detection reagents were from Amersham Life Sciences Inc. (Arlington Heights, IL). Lipofectamine reagent was from Invitrogen life technologies (Carlsbad, CA).
Cell culture and transfection
Breast cancer MCF-7, MDA-MB-468 and MDA-MB-453 cells were obtained from the American Type Culture Collection (Manassas, VA). Cells were grown in RPMI 1640 supplemented with D-glucose, HEPES buffer, 2 mM L-glutamine, 1% penicillin-streptomycin mixture, and 10% fetal bovine serum. Cells were grown in tissue culture dishes at 37°C with 5% CO
2. Cells were transfected with pCDNA3neo-Smac/DIABLO, pCDNA3neo-Δ55 Smac/DIABLO or pCDNA3neo plasmids as we described elsewhere [
5].
Smac/DIABLO peptide
The AVPIAQK sequence (located at the amino terminus after MTS) of Smac/DIABLO is absolutely required for its ability to interact with the baculovirus IAP repeat (BIR3) of XIAP and to promote cytochrome c dependent caspase activation. Smac/DIABLO control peptide (H-MKSDFYF-P-RQIKIWFQNRRMKWKK-OH) and Smac/DIABLO-N7 (H-AVPIAQK-P-RQIKIWFQNRRMKWKK-OH) peptides were used at doses ranging from 25 to 100 μM. The Smac/DIABLO-N7 peptide is modified to be cell permeable by linking the lysine carboxyl terminal to the arginine of Antennapedia homeodomain 16-mer peptide (underlined) via a proline linker.
XTT Assay
XTT assays were performed as we described before [
32]. In brief, cells (1 × 10
4 in 200 μl culture medium per well) were seeded in 96-well plates (flat bottom), and treated with drugs in the presence or absence of TRAIL. Plates were incubated for various time points at 37°C with 5% CO
2. Before the end of the experiment, 50 μl XTT (sodium 3' [1-(phenylaminocarbonyl)-3,4-tetrazolium]-bis (4-methoxy-6-nitro) benzene sulfonic acid hydrate) labeling mixture (final concentration, 125 μM sodium XTT and 25 μM PMS) per well was added and plates were incubated for additional 4 h at 37°C and 5% CO
2. The spectrophotometric absorbance of the sample was measured using a microtitre plate (ELISA) reader. The wavelength to measure absorbance of the formazan product was 450 nm, and the reference wavelength was 650 nm.
Western Blot Analysis
Cells were lysed in a buffer containing 10 mM Tris-HCl (pH 7.6), 150 mM NaCl, 0.5 mM EDTA, 1 mM EGTA, 1% SDS, 1 mM sodium orthovanadate, and a mixture of protease inhibitors (1 mM phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride, 1 μg/ml pepstatin A, 2 μg/ml aprotinin). Lysates were sonicated for 10 s, centrifuged for 20 min at 10,000 × g and stored at -70°C. Equal amounts of crude proteins were run on 10% SDS-PAGE gels and electrophoretically transferred to nitrocellulose. Nitrocellulose blots were blocked with 6% nonfat dry milk in TBS buffer (20 mM Tris-HCl (pH 7.4), 500 mM NaCl, and 0.01% Tween 20) for 1 hr, washed in TBST three times (10, 5 and 5 min each) and incubated with primary antibody in TBS containing 1% bovine serum albumin overnight at 4°C. Blots were washed three times (10, 5, 5 min each). Immunoreactivity was detected by sequential incubation with horseradish peroxidase-conjugated secondary antibody and ECL reagents.
Measurement of Apoptosis
Apoptosis was measured by DAPI staining as we described earlier [
5].
Statistical Analyses
For each studied variable, mean and SEM were calculated. Differences between groups were analyzed by one or two way ANOVA (P <0.05).
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interest.
Authors' contributions
TEF and SS performed the experiments. SS and RKS designed the experiments, supervised the project, and prepare the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.